Distillation is a process that separates mixtures into their component parts based on differences in their boiling points. It involves vaporizing a liquid mixture and condensing the vapor to obtain purified fractions. There are several types of distillation processes that can be used for applications like purification of organic solvents, separation of drugs and petroleum products, and recovery of volatile oils and solvents. Some key distillation techniques described in the document include simple distillation, fractional distillation, distillation under reduced pressure, steam distillation, and molecular distillation.
Presentation on fractional distillation. Introduction to distillation, fractional distillation, its principle, working, applications, advantages and disadvantages.
SUBJECT:-Pharmaceutical engineering 1
CONTENTS
-general study of composition
-properties
factors affecting the selection of material of pharmaceutical plant
-construction with special reference to S.S and glass
Definition of drying
Importance of drying
Difference between drying and evaporation
Drying is defined as removal of the liquid from a material by application of heat & is accomplished by transfer of a liquid from the surface into an unsaturated vapor phase .
Drying is the final removal of water from material (usually by heat)
Drying is commonly the last stage in a manufacture process
Non-thermal drying
1- As Squeezing wetted sponge
2- Adsorption by desiccant (desiccation)
3- Extraction.
Preservation of drug products
Preparation of bulk drugs
Improved handling
Improved characteristics
Equipments
Drying is necessary in order to avoid deterioration. A few examples are…
--blood products, tissues… undergo microbial growth
--effervescent tablets, synthetic & semi synthetic drugs undergo…. chemical decomposition.
Full Distillation technique where you find about various terminologies, its principle in which raolt's law and henry's law, assembly, classification. Distillation apparatus with their principle, advantages and disadvantages and detailed abour steam distillation and azeotropic distillation.
Distillation is the process of converting liquid into its vapours by heating and reconverting it again into liquid by condensing the vapours.
The product obtained from the condensation of vapours is known as distillate or condensate.
Container which collects the distillate is known as receiver.
It results in essentially complete separation (nearly pure components).
It can be applied for two immiscible or non-reacting solid and liquid or liquid and liquid
Presentation on fractional distillation. Introduction to distillation, fractional distillation, its principle, working, applications, advantages and disadvantages.
SUBJECT:-Pharmaceutical engineering 1
CONTENTS
-general study of composition
-properties
factors affecting the selection of material of pharmaceutical plant
-construction with special reference to S.S and glass
Definition of drying
Importance of drying
Difference between drying and evaporation
Drying is defined as removal of the liquid from a material by application of heat & is accomplished by transfer of a liquid from the surface into an unsaturated vapor phase .
Drying is the final removal of water from material (usually by heat)
Drying is commonly the last stage in a manufacture process
Non-thermal drying
1- As Squeezing wetted sponge
2- Adsorption by desiccant (desiccation)
3- Extraction.
Preservation of drug products
Preparation of bulk drugs
Improved handling
Improved characteristics
Equipments
Drying is necessary in order to avoid deterioration. A few examples are…
--blood products, tissues… undergo microbial growth
--effervescent tablets, synthetic & semi synthetic drugs undergo…. chemical decomposition.
Full Distillation technique where you find about various terminologies, its principle in which raolt's law and henry's law, assembly, classification. Distillation apparatus with their principle, advantages and disadvantages and detailed abour steam distillation and azeotropic distillation.
Distillation is the process of converting liquid into its vapours by heating and reconverting it again into liquid by condensing the vapours.
The product obtained from the condensation of vapours is known as distillate or condensate.
Container which collects the distillate is known as receiver.
It results in essentially complete separation (nearly pure components).
It can be applied for two immiscible or non-reacting solid and liquid or liquid and liquid
Distillation, distillation process for pharma students, simple distillation, ...RajkumarKumawat11
Distillation, distillation process for pharma students, simple distillation, fractional distillation, distillation under reduced pressure, steam distillation, destructive distillation, water for injection and sterile water
Software Used In Formulation Design Process- Minor Project [Bachelor].pdfRAHUL PAL
In the field of formulations, various software tools are commonly used to streamline and optimize the development process. One such software is formulation management software, which helps in creating and managing formulations by allowing scientists to input ingredient quantities, calculate costs, and analyze ingredient interactions. Additionally, simulation software like computational fluid dynamics (CFD) programs are utilized to model and predict how formulations will behave under different conditions, aiding in the design of efficient manufacturing processes. Furthermore, statistical analysis software plays a crucial role in analyzing experimental data and optimizing formulations based on statistical models, ensuring that the final product meets desired specifications. Overall, these software tools enhance productivity, accuracy, and efficiency in the formulation development workflow.
Major Project (B. Pharm) OPIUM POPPY PROJECT.pdfRAHUL PAL
Opium cultivation, an ancient practice rooted in regions like the Golden Triangle and Golden Crescent, involves a meticulous process blending nature and human intervention. Picture a serene landscape with gently rolling hills blanketed in lush greenery. Amidst this verdant tapestry stand tall, slender opium poppy plants, their delicate petals shimmering in hues of pink and white. These plants exude an air of mystique, their bulbous seed pods containing the coveted opium latex. Skilled farmers nurture these plants with utmost care, tending to their needs for water, nutrients, and protection from pests. The cultivation cycle begins with sowing the poppy seeds during specific seasons conducive to their growth. As the plants mature, they blossom into exquisite flowers, each harboring the potential for opium production. The farmers deftly slit the seed pods at just the right moment, allowing the milky sap to seep out and gradually solidify into opium. This labor-intensive process demands precision and patience, as any misstep can impact the potency and quality of the opium yield. Despite its allure, opium cultivation is not without controversy and challenges. Legal restrictions, environmental concerns, and the socioeconomic impacts on communities underscore the complex nature of this age-old practice. However, for those entrenched in the art of opium cultivation, it remains a delicate dance between tradition, livelihood, and the ever-evolving dynamics of global demand and supply.
Niosomes are nanosized vesicles composed of nonionic surfactants and cholesterol that form when these compounds are dispersed in an aqueous medium. These lipid-based structures are similar to liposomes but differ in their composition, as niosomes use nonionic surfactants instead of phospholipids. The unique characteristic of niosomes lies in their ability to encapsulate both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs within their bilayer membrane. This feature makes them promising candidates for drug delivery systems, as they can protect the encapsulated drug from degradation, prolong its release, and enhance its bioavailability. Additionally, niosomes offer advantages such as biocompatibility, stability, and ease of preparation, making them a versatile platform for targeted drug delivery and other biomedical applications.
Niosome An Non-Ionic Surfactant Vesicles.pptxRAHUL PAL
Niosomes are novel drug delivery systems that have garnered significant interest in the pharmaceutical field. They are essentially vesicles composed of non-ionic surfactants and cholesterol, forming a bilayer structure similar to liposomes. However, unlike liposomes, which are composed of phospholipids, niosomes are formed by self-assembly of non-ionic surfactants in aqueous media. This unique composition offers several advantages such as improved drug solubility, stability, and biocompatibility.
The introduction of niosomes as drug carriers has revolutionized the field of drug delivery due to their ability to encapsulate both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs. This versatility allows for targeted and controlled release of therapeutics, enhancing their efficacy while minimizing side effects.
Moreover, the surface of niosomes can be modified to achieve specific targeting of drugs to desired sites within the body, thus enhancing therapeutic outcomes and reducing systemic toxicity.
Overall, niosomes hold great promise in the pharmaceutical industry and continue to be a subject of intense research for their potential applications in various fields including cancer therapy, gene delivery, and vaccine development.
𝐎𝐫𝐚𝐥 𝐏𝐚𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: 𝐈𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞 (𝐈𝐑𝐓𝐄𝐂 𝟐.𝟎-𝟐𝟎𝟐𝟒); The Curre...RAHUL PAL
Targeted drug delivery systems are employed to administer pharmaceutical medication,
facilitating the precise delivery of drugs to specific diseased areas. Several drug delivery
systems utilise carriers such as antibodies, transdermal patches, biodegradable polymers,
nanoparticles (NPs), liposomes, niosomes, and microspheres. Niosomes, on the other hand,
represent a promising and innovative category of vesicular systems. Niosomes are vesicles
formed by hydrating a combination of nonionic surfactants and cholesterol. These non-ionic
surfactant vesicles serve as carriers for both amphiphilic and lipophilic drugs. In the drug
delivery system using niosomes, the medication is enclosed within a vesicle. Niosomes in
tuberculosis (TB) possess biodegradable and biocompatible properties, are non-immunogenic,
and demonstrate versatility in their structural composition. It’s a serious and potentially deadly
infectious disease caused by a bacteria called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. In the recent
update, WHO still estimates 9.9 million new TB cases in 2022 at the latest. Involvement of
niosomes improves the treatment of TB with much more advanced technology and an advanced
drug nanocarrier with better treatment. The main highlights of this review paper are to
summarise the structure, compositions, preparation methods, and ICH stability guidelines for
the formulation of niosomes and their applications in TB with their several stages of treatment
by niosomal formulations.
Introduction: This study explores the use of Response Surface Methodology (RSM), a statistical optimization technique, to optimize the SR properties of prochlorperazine maleate (PCM) matrix tablets. PCM is a phenothiazine derivative used for treating schizophrenia, nausea, and vomiting. Sustained-release formulations offer extended drug delivery, potentially improving patient compliance and reducing side effects. RSM helps identify optimal combinations of critical formulation factors influencing drug release, such as polymer type and concentration, filler type, and drug/polymer ratio. The study likely involves designing experiments based on chosen RSM designs (e.g., Box-Behnken) with varying factor levels. Formulate SR tablets with different factor combinations. Evaluating the drug release profiles of each tablet formulation. Analyzing data using RSM software to build mathematical models relating factors to drug release and identifying optimal factor combinations that maximize desired release characteristics.
Objective: The ongoing research purpose to improve the advancement of a sustained release tablet containing Phenothiazine derivative PCM loaded matrix. This is achieved by utilizing DoE as a computational method to statistically validate the formulation.
THE CURRENT STATUS IN MUCOSAL DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM (MDDS) AND FUTURE PROSPECT...RAHUL PAL
This systematic review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current status of
mucosal drug delivery systems (MDDS) and explore their future prospects in drug delivery.
MDDS have gained significant attention in recent years due to their potential to enhance drug
absorption, improve therapeutic efficacy, and minimize systemic side effects. This review
critically evaluates the existing literature on MDDS, including various mucosal routes such as
oral, nasal, ocular, pulmonary, and vaginal delivery. Additionally, it discusses the challenges
associated with MDDS, such as formulation development, stability, and regulatory
considerations. Furthermore, this review highlights emerging technologies and innovative
strategies that hold promise for the future of MDDS. Overall, this systematic review provides
valuable insights into the current landscape of MDDS and offers recommendations for future
research and development in this field.
Design of Experiments (DoE) manipulation in the formulation and optimization ...RAHUL PAL
Introduction: In India, the regulatory body for catechu is the Food Safety and Standards Authority of
India (FSSAI). The FSSAI is responsible for regulating the manufacture, sale, and distribution of food in
India, including catechu. The FSSAI has set standards for the purity and quality of catechu, and it also
monitors the market for adulterated catechu. The FDA (The Food and Drug Administration) is
responsible for regulating the safety and efficacy of drugs and dietary supplements in the United States
(US). The FDA has not approved catechu as a drug or dietary supplement, but it does regulate catechu as
a food additive. The FDA has set limits on the amount of catechu that can be added to food
Objective: The primary objective of this research was to involvement of design of experiments (DoE)
manipulation in the formulation and optimization of a traditional Ayurvedic medicine derived from dried
extract of Senegalia catechu enhanced through statistical analysis.
Methodology: The dried extract of Senegalia catechu was collected and identified at the botanical
herbarium garden. Subsequently, it underwent a drying process and was ground into a powder.
The Utilization of 32 Full Factorial Design (FFD) for Optimization of Linco...RAHUL PAL
Objectives: The ongoing research aims to enhance the development of LNH-loaded nanogel by
utilizing DoE as the computational method to statistically validate their formulation.
Methodology: In this research Chitosan used as a natural polymer and Poly (Ethylene glycol)
[PEG] as a penetration or permeation enhancer. The different nanogel of LNH were synthesized
using the Nanoprecipitation and Dispersion method, with variations in the drug-polymer ratio
(1/0.03, 1/0.08, 1/0.12). The process parameters were carefully optimizing for enhance the
efficiency of the synthesis. To achieve this, optimization studies were conducted using 3² FFD,
employing the Design Expert Software Trial version 10.0.7. The total of 13 runs were generated to
ensure comprehensive analysis and evaluation of the procedure. The selected independent
variables included the concentration of Chitosan (R1) and Carbopol 934 (R2). The dependent
variables, on the other hand, were particle size (P1), Polydispersity Index (P2), and % Drug release
(P3), chosen in that order. By employing this optimization technique, one can acquire valuable
information in a manner that is both efficient and cost-effective. This approach facilitates a deeper
comprehension of the relationship between controllable independent variables and the performance
and quality of the Nanogels being produced.
Determination of Partition coefficient of Known and Unknown drug.pdfRAHUL PAL
Partition coefficient, often denoted as P or P_oct, is a measure of how a solute distributes between two immiscible (unmixable) solvents. It is commonly used in chemistry, biochemistry, and pharmacology to understand the distribution of a compound between different phases, such as between a hydrophobic organic solvent and water. In experimental settings, the partition coefficient is determined by measuring the concentrations of the solute in each phase. The values obtained provide insights into the solute's behavior and can guide decisions in various scientific and industrial processes.
A pharmaceutical suspension is a heterogeneous system in which finely divided solid particles are dispersed in a liquid medium. Unlike solutions, where solutes are completely dissolved, suspensions involve particles that are only partially soluble or insoluble in the liquid. These suspensions are commonly used in the pharmaceutical industry to deliver medications that may be poorly soluble or unstable in their pure form. The solid particles, often in the form of powders or crystals, are dispersed throughout the liquid phase, creating a stable mixture through the use of suspending agents or stabilizers. These agents prevent the settling of particles, ensuring uniform distribution and ease of redispersion upon shaking before administration. Pharmaceutical suspensions offer advantages in terms of flexibility in dosing and formulation, enabling the delivery of therapeutic agents in various forms such as oral liquids, injectables, or topical preparations, enhancing patient compliance and therapeutic efficacy. The formulation and stability of pharmaceutical suspensions require careful consideration of factors such as particle size, density, and the choice of stabilizers to maintain a consistent and reliable product.
PHARMACEUTICAL SUPPOSITORIES & PESSARIES.pptRAHUL PAL
Suppositories and pessaries are both types of medication delivery systems that are designed to be inserted into body orifices for therapeutic purposes. While they serve similar functions, they are used in different parts of the body.
Suppositories:
Usage: Suppositories are typically designed for rectal or vaginal administration.
Composition: They are solid, bullet-shaped or cone-shaped dosage forms that contain medication in a base that melts or dissolves at body temperature.
Rectal Suppositories: Commonly used for medications that need to bypass the digestive system or when a patient cannot take medications orally. They are inserted into the rectum.
Vaginal Suppositories: Often used for localized treatment of gynecological conditions, such as yeast infections or hormonal therapy. They are inserted into the vagina.
Pessaries:
Usage: Pessaries are specifically designed for vaginal administration.
Composition: They are solid, oval-shaped or ring-shaped devices made of various materials such as silicone, rubber, or plastic.
Indications: Pessaries are mainly used to support the uterus, bladder, or rectum in cases of pelvic organ prolapse. However, they can also be used for the controlled release of medication into the vagina for the treatment of local conditions.
Maintenance: Pessaries need to be fitted by a healthcare professional and should be cleaned and reinserted regularly.
Partition Coefficient Determination (Pharmaceutics Practical).pptxRAHUL PAL
Partition coefficients are a fascinating and important concept in many fields, from chemistry and environmental science to medicine and pharmacology. They tell us about how a substance will distribute itself between two immiscible phases, like how a drug might move between your blood and tissues, or how a pollutant might spread through soil and water.
A partition coefficient, denoted as P or log P, describes the ratio of the concentration of a compound in one phase (usually organic) to its concentration in another phase (often water) at equilibrium.
Higher values of P indicate a greater preference for the organic phase, meaning the compound is more lipophilic (fat-loving).
Lower values of P suggest a higher affinity for the aqueous phase, implying the compound is more hydrophilic (water-loving).
Research Methodology_UNIT_V_Declaration of Helsinki M. Pharm (IIIrd Sem.)RAHUL PAL
Declaration of Helsinki: History, introduction, basic principles for all medical research, and additional principles for medical research combined with medical care.
The Utilization of Response Surface Methodology (RSM) In the Optimization of ...RAHUL PAL
The objective of the current studies to enhance the formulation of DS-loaded liposomes through the utilization of Response surface methodology (RSM) and involving the computation approach for their validation.
Investigational outcome represents the perceived responses were in related with the desired values and this represents the relationship of the RSM for optimization of % DR and % EE in DS loaded liposomal preparations.
Research Methodology (M. Pharm, IIIrd Sem.)_UNIT_IV_CPCSEA Guidelines for Lab...RAHUL PAL
CPCSEA guidelines for laboratory animal facility: Goals, veterinary care, quarantine,
surveillance, diagnosis, treatment and control of disease, personal
hygiene, location of animal facilities to laboratories, anesthesia, euthanasia, physical facilities, environment, animal husbandry, record keeping, SOPs, personnel and
training, transport of lab animals.
MEDICAL RESEARCH: UNIT_III_ EUTHANASIA, COI, CONFIDENTIALITY RESEARCH METHODO...RAHUL PAL
Medical research in clinical settings is the study of human health and disease in people. It is the primary way that researchers determine if a new form of treatment or prevention, such as a new drug, diet, or medical device, is safe and effective in people.
A clinical trial is designed to learn if a new treatment is more effective or has less harmful side effects than existing treatments.
Clinical trail is basically have 4 phases: Phase I, Phase II, Phase III, Phase IV
(I) MEDICAL RESEARCH_ UNIT_III_RESEARCH METHODOLOGY & BIOSTATISTICS.pptxRAHUL PAL
Research Methodology and Biostatistics syllabus:
Medical Research: History, values in medical ethics, autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, double effect, conflicts between autonomy.
Medical research has a long and varied history. It has evolved from rudimentary practices to sophisticated, evidence-based methodologies. Some key milestones include the development of the scientific method, the use of randomized controlled trials, the discovery of antibiotics, and the mapping of the human genome. Ethical concerns have also played a significant role in shaping the history of medical research, especially in response to various ethical violations, such as the Tuskegee Syphilis Study and the Nuremberg Trials.
Resolving conflicts between these principles often requires careful consideration, ethical analysis, and, in some cases, consultation with ethics committees or boards. The specific course of action may vary based on the individual circumstances and ethical frameworks employed by healthcare professionals and researchers. Ethical guidelines and regulations also play a significant role in addressing and preventing these conflicts in medical research.
Research Article Published: "Optimization and formulation of dox loaded lipos...RAHUL PAL
Doxorubicin (DOX) is a potent anticancer drug, but it is also associated with significant side effects, such as cardiotoxicity. Liposomal encapsulation of DOX can help to reduce these side effects and improve the drug's efficacy.
There are a number of different factors that can affect the optimization and formulation of DOX-loaded liposomes, including:
Lipid composition: The type and ratio of lipids used to form the liposomes can affect their size, stability, and drug encapsulation efficiency. Some commonly used lipids for DOX liposomes include hydrogenated soy phosphatidylcholine (HSPC), cholesterol, and distearoylphosphatidylglycerol (DSPG).
Drug loading method: There are a number of different methods for loading DOX into liposomes. Some common methods include the ammonium sulfate gradient method, the remote loading method, and the ethanol injection method. The choice of loading method can affect the drug encapsulation efficiency and stability of the liposomes.
Liposome size: The size of the liposomes can affect their circulation time in the body and their ability to target specific tissues. Smaller liposomes tend to have a longer circulation time and are better able to penetrate tumors.
Surface modification: Liposomes can be surface-modified with various ligands to improve their targeting and delivery properties. For example, liposomes can be conjugated with antibodies to target specific cancer cells.
The optimization of DOX-loaded liposomes is typically carried out using a quality by design (QbD) approach. QbD is a systematic approach to drug development that focuses on identifying and controlling the critical quality attributes (CQAs) of the drug product. The CQAs of DOX-loaded liposomes may include particle size, drug encapsulation efficiency, stability, and in vitro and in vivo performance.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Safalta Digital marketing institute in Noida, provide complete applications that encompass a huge range of virtual advertising and marketing additives, which includes search engine optimization, virtual communication advertising, pay-per-click on marketing, content material advertising, internet analytics, and greater. These university courses are designed for students who possess a comprehensive understanding of virtual marketing strategies and attributes.Safalta Digital Marketing Institute in Noida is a first choice for young individuals or students who are looking to start their careers in the field of digital advertising. The institute gives specialized courses designed and certification.
for beginners, providing thorough training in areas such as SEO, digital communication marketing, and PPC training in Noida. After finishing the program, students receive the certifications recognised by top different universitie, setting a strong foundation for a successful career in digital marketing.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
1. DISTILLATION
“It is defined as separation of components of liquid mixture by process involving vaporization &
then condensation at another place.”
It involves two steps:
01). Converting a liquid into vapour.
02). Transferring the vapour to another place & recovering the liquid by condensation.
The feed liquid is knowns as “Distillation” and the condensate liquid is called “Distillate or
Condensate”.
APPLICATIONS
- Separation of volatile oil.
- Purification of organic solvents.
- Manufacturing of official preparation.
- Refineries of petroleum products.
- Recovery of solvents.
- Separation of drugs obtained from plant & animals.
- Purification of drugs obtained from chemical process.
IDEAL SOLUTION
“Ideal solutions are defined as the one which there is no change in the properties of the
components other that dilution when they are mixed to form a solution.”
Example: Methanol & water.
DALTON’S LAW
“Daltons law of partial pressure states that pressure extract by a mixture of gases is equal to
sum of partial vapour pressure exerted by each gas.”
RAOULT’S LAW
“It states that partial vapor pressure of each volatile components is equal to vapour pressure of
pure components multiplied by its mole fraction in the solution at a given temperature. “
2. SIMPLE DISTILLATION
It is the process of a converting single constituents for liquid (mixture) into its vapour,
transferring the vapour to another place & recovering the liquid by condensing the vapour.
Usually by allowing it to coming contact with cold surface.
PRINCIPLE
Liquid boil when its vapour pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure. Simple distillation
conducted at its boiling point.
The higher the relative volatility of liquid the better the separation. Heat is supplied to liquid so
that it boils & resulting vapour condensed.
CONSTRUCTION
It consists of a distillation flask with a side arm sloping
downwards. A condenser if fitted into the side arm by means of a cork.
The condenser is usually is water condenser.
The condenser is connected to receiver flask by means of adaptor.
`
3. PROCEDURE
The liquid is to be distilled its filled into the flask. A thermometer is inserted in to the cork &
fixed to the flask. The water is circulated through jacket of condenser. The heat is supplied &
content is heated & boiled after some time. The vapour rises up & passes down the side arm
into the condenser the temperature rises rapidly & reaches a constant value the temperature is
equal to the boiling point of liquid finally the vapour form are condense & collected in to
receiver.
APPLICATIONS
→ It is used for preparation distilled water & water for injection.
→ Volatile & aromatic water are prepared.
→ Nonvolatile solid are separated from volatile liquid.
4. FLASH DISTILLATION
It is defined as the process in which the enter liquid is suddenly vaporized by passing it term
high pressure zone to low.
PRINCIPLE
When a hot liquid mixture is allowed to enter form high pressure zone to vaporized suddenly
during this process the chamber get cooled the individual vapour. Vapour phase molecule of
high boiling fraction get condensed, while low boiling fraction remain as vapour. This process
requires for the equilibrium to reach & therefore the liquid & vapour are held in contact with
each other for some period of time & then are separated.
The vapour are further condensed & collected.
CONSTRUCTION
It consists of a pump, which is connected to a feed reservoir.
Pump helps in pumping the feed into heating chamber which consists of suitable heating
mechanism.
The other end of the pipe is directly introduced into the vapour-liquid separator through a
reducing valve. The vapour outlet is provide at the top of the separator & liquid outlet is
provided at the bottom.
5. WORKING
The feed is pumped through a heater at a certain pressure. The liquids get heated, which enters
the vapour-liquid separator through a pressure reducing valve. Due to the drop-in pressure the
liquid flashes, which further enhances the vaporization process.
Suddenly vaporization induces cooling. The individual vapour phase molecules of high boiling
fraction get condensed while the low boiling fraction remains as vapour.
The mixture is allowed for a sufficient time, so that vapour & liquid portions separate & achieve
equilibrium.
USES
It is used for separating components, which boils at widely different temperatures.
It is widely used in petroleum industry.
ADVANTAGES
→ It is used for obtaining multi-components.
→ It can be used in continuous mode.
DISADVANTAGES
❑ It is not suitable for two components systems.
❑ It is not suitable if the separated components are needed in pure quality.
6. It is the type of distillation process which involve separation of mixable liquids. The process
involves repeated distillation & condensation & the mixture I usually separated into
components parts; the separation happens when the mixture is heated at a certain
temperature. Where fraction of the mixture starts to vaporized.
PRINCIPLE
The basic principle of this type of distillation is that differ boil & evaporates at different
temperature so when the mixture is heated, substance with power boiling point start to boil
first & convert in to vapour.
CONSTRUCTION
It consists of a fractionating column, distillation flask, condenser,
receiver & heat source. The fractionating column is inserted between the still & condenser at
the top of column, a condenser is provided & heat is supplied at the bottom of the column.
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
7. WORKING
The mixture to be distilled is feed to the boiler & heated. A mixture of two mixable liquids A &
B is taken where A have more volatility then B.
The solution is added into the flask, heat is applied & the mixture starts to boil the vapour are
formed having large amount of vapour from liquid A. these vapour moves through the
fractalizing column into the condenser where it is cool down to form a liquid which is collected
into the receiver. Vaporization & condensation takes place throughout the process until two
mixtures are separated completely.
USES
Use for purification of water as well as separating water & acetone.
Use in several industries like oil binaries & chemical plants for purification &
separation of organic compounds.
ADVANTAGES
It is used for separating large amount of mixable liquid according to their boiling point.
Example: acetone & water.
DISADVANTAGES
This method cannot be used to separate mixable liquid from azeotropic mixture.
8. DISTILLATION UNDER REDUCE PRESSURE
it is defined as a process in which liquids is distilled at a temperature lower than its boiling point
by applications of vacuum.
PRINCIPLE
Liquid boil when its vapour pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure. If the
external pressure is reduced by applications of vacuum, the boiling point of liquid decreases
therefore the liquid boils at lower temperature.
CONSTRUCTION
Distillation under reduced pressure or vacuum is carried out in a specially designed glass
apparatus. A to necked ‘Claisen’s flask’ is used, the main neck of which is fitted with along
capillary tube (capillary tubes avoids bumping) & the side neck being fitted with a
thermometer.
The side tube is connected to a condenser carrying a receiver at the other end. The receiver is
attached to a vacuum pump to reduce the pressure. The pressure is measured with the help of
a manometer.
9. WORKING
The liquid to be distilled is filled into the flask. The reducing vacuum applied
and content or heated gradually. The temperature rises & get vaporized rapidly due to vacuum.
the vapour passes through the condenser & conduced is collected into the receiver.
The temperature is noted which is less than the boiling point of the liquids.
ADVANTAGES
This method is used for the compound which degraded or higher temperature.
Example: Enzymes, vitamins & alkaloids etc.
DISADVANTAGES
❑ In vacuum distillation persistent foaming occurs.
❑ Not suitable for preparation of semi-solids or solid extracts.
10. STEAM DISTILLATION
PRINCIPLE
Steam distillation is a method of distillation carried out with the help of steam & used for
separation of high boiling substance from non-volatile impurities.
A mixture of immixible liquids begainst to boil when the some of their vapour pressure, is equal
to atmospheric pressure.
For volatile- substance which are mixable with water steam distillation involve the principle of
fractional distillation.
CONSTRUCTIONS
It consists of steam can with a cork having two holes in one-hole
safety tube is attached & through another hole a vent tube is pumped, the other the bent tube
is connected to the flask, containing non-aqueous liquids.
A delivery tube is insulted is the second flask which connect flask & condenser.
11. WORKING
The non-aqueous liquid is placed in the flask. The small quantity of water is added to it. Steam
can be filled with water; the flask & steam can are heated simentionally. This steam carries the
volatile oil & passes in to the condenser which is cooled in to the receiver the process is
continued until all the non-aqueous liquid has been distilled.
In the receiver water & organic liquid forms two separate dyes which can be easily separated.
APPLICATION
❑ It is used of separation of immixible liquids.
Example: Toluene & water.
❑ It is used for extraction of most of the volatile oil like clobe like.
❑ Camphor is also distilled by this method.
ADVANTAGES
→ Volatile oil can be separated at lower temperature is steam distillation, without loss of
aroma.
→ It is useful in purification li liquids with high boiling points.
→ Provided molecular weight.
DISADVANTAGES
Not suitable when immixible liquids & water reacts with each other.
12. MOLECULAR DISTILLATION
A process in which each molecule in the vapour phase travels the mean free path & gets
condensed individually without intermolecular collisions on application of vacuum.
PRINCIPLE
The substance to be distilled have very low vapour pressure i.e. viscous
liquid, oils, waxy material & high molecular weight substance. These boils at very high
temperature in order to decrease boiling point of liquid high vacuum is applied.
The mean free path of a molecule is defined as average distance through
which a molecule can move without coming in to collision with each other. Its express as-
= 3/p
Where p = vapour pressure.
= density.
The mean free path can be increase by desecrating the viscosity.
REQUIRMENT FOR MOLECULAR DISTILLATION
01). The evaporating surface must bee closed to condensing surface this insure the molecular to
come in contact with the condenser a soon as they leave the evaporating surface.
02). The liquid surface area must be large as possible, because the vapour is evoled from the
surface of the molecule.
03). The molecular collision should be minimizing because the change of direction path of
molecules.
13. ❑ More frequently used in the refining of fixed oils.
❑ Vitamin A is separated from fish liver oil.
❑ Purification of chemicals, “tricresyl phosphate”.
APPLICATION
14. FALLING FILM MOLECULAR STILL
PRINCIPLE
In this method vaporization occurs from the film of liquid flowing down a heated surface under
high vacuum. The vapors travel short distance & strike condenser.
Each molecule is condensed= individually & distillate is collected.
CONSTRUCTION
It consists of a vessel of diameter 1m, the wall of the vessel is provided with jacket.
Wipers are provided to the vessel wall which are connected to rotating head to motor &
condenser are arranged very closed to wall of vessel.
Vacuum pump is also connected to the vessel.
15. WORKING
The vessel is heated & vacuum is applied at the center. Wipers are allowed to rotate and it is
entered as the liquid flow down it spread o from a film by wipers, which are moving at a speed
of 3m/sec.
Since the moving at an already heated, the liquid films evaporate directly. Vapour travel its
mean free path & strike the condenser, the condensate is collected in vessels.
It is used purification chemicals such a di-methyl thalate.
Vitamin A is separated from oil.
ADVANTAGES
Short residence time of the feed.
Significantly lower temperature is required due to high vacuum.
DISADVANTAGES
This is not used for azeotropic mixture.
USES