A working memory capacity (WMC) test called “objects-span tri-tasks” is designed for preschoolers
undergoing treatment using a new genre of multimedia, tangible multimedia, created by the authors. It tests
the dual-functions of the preschoolers’ working memory (WM), namely storage and manipulation capacity,
essential in supporting academic skills. The third task in the test is the overt setting of task engaging the
long-term memory that supports the operation of WM. Tangible multimedia potentially enhances the WMC
of preschoolers to a considerable extent because firstly, it uses tangible objects that are cognitively
appropriate to the “preoperational” stage of preschoolers, and secondly, it simultaneously stimulates three
main sensory channels, prescribed as equally crucial in knowledge acquisition in human memory theories.
A pragmatic significance of the research is that it deepens the scope of multimedia research by looking into
the aspect of cognitive structure which is rarely conducted in the multimedia realm. It also demonstrates an
important step forward in multimedia research by relating WMC to the newly explored tangible
multimedia, which could determine the real capability and value of such system. This paper starts off by
discussing the underlying theories that contribute to the formation of the system and test, followed by its
procedure, and a brief report of a case study
This study examined how different types of 3D visualizations (interactive 3D animation, 3D animation, and static 3D illustrations) combined with narration and text affect learning among 212 eighth grade students in Greece. The study tested an interactive multimedia application on methods of separating mixtures that was produced in three versions differing only in the type of visualization. The results showed that versions with interactive 3D animations and 3D animations increased student interest and engagement. However, the version with static 3D illustrations allowed students more control over their learning pace and placed less cognitive load on working memory.
This document discusses research on using mobile technologies to support learning. It begins by reviewing how ubiquitous computing has enabled new ways to support mobile workers and learners. Three case studies are then described that examine how mobile devices can be used as cognitive tools to scaffold everyday activities and support collaborative learning. Specifically, the studies explore using sentence openers on mobile devices to structure collaboration, designing fine-grained instruction to integrate mobile learning, and examining how deeply structured learning designs impact student outcomes. The document argues that mobile technologies hold potential as cognitive tools to facilitate complex collaborative learning when integrated thoughtfully into pedagogical designs.
This document presents a cognitive theory of multimedia learning based on dual coding theory, cognitive load theory, and constructivist learning theory. The theory aims to guide the design of multimedia instructional messages to promote understanding. The document discusses challenges in designing effective multimedia learning environments and describes research testing principles derived from the cognitive theory. The research focuses on computer-based multimedia explanations of how systems work and evaluates understanding through problem-solving transfer tasks.
The document discusses how multimedia can enhance student learning if properly designed based on principles of how the brain processes information. It explains that the brain has limited working memory but can process more information if multimedia uses both visual and auditory channels. Effective multimedia presents words and pictures together, focuses learner attention, and excludes extraneous information. It should be interactive, activate prior knowledge, and engage learners to help information transfer from working memory to long-term memory.
This document discusses classifying user preferences of web learning systems using a neural network with genetic algorithm optimization. It begins with an abstract describing using cognitive attributes from user questionnaires to train classifiers to identify areas for improving a web learning system's layout. A multilayer perceptron neural network was proposed to classify user preferences, and genetic algorithm was used to optimize the neural network parameters to improve performance. 182 students were given questionnaires assessing their cognitive responses to known and unknown subjects on a learning website to collect training data for the proposed genetically optimized neural network classifier.
This document provides a theoretical framework for examining how emergent mobile technologies can be used as cognitive tools to facilitate collaborative learning. It discusses key concepts including distributed cognition, which views cognition as distributed among people, artifacts, and symbols. Cognitive tools are any tools that enhance cognitive processes during thinking and learning. The document also discusses constructivism and the idea that learning involves actively constructing knowledge through social interactions. It provides background on three empirical case studies examining how mobile technologies can support collaborative learning in authentic contexts through structured instructional design.
Laru, J. & Järvelä, S. (2004). Scaffolding different learning activities with...Jari Laru
Laru, J. & Järvelä, S. (2004). Scaffolding different learning activities with mobile tools in three everyday contexts. In P. Gerjets, P. A. Kirschner, J. Elen & R. Joiner (Eds.), Instructional design for effective and enjoyable computer-supported learning. Proceedings of the EARLI SIGs Instructional Design and Learning and Instruction with Computers (pp.11-21). Tübingen: Knowledge Media Research Center.
GIVING THE LEARNERS CONTROL OF NAVIGATION: COGNITIVE GAINS AND LOSSESTamas Makany
Web based learning often involves exploration of the information space similar to the exploration of space in the real world. Initial paths taken in a novel physical or virtual environment will not only guide the discoveries of what the environment contains, but also formulate the underlying organising principles. The suggested route in a museum frequently presents artworks that are either chronological or conceptually tied together. Deviating from this –and taking a route of our own– might be either confusing or insightful. The structure of presenting the information and the control that the learners have in exploring it, plays a major role in determining mental representations and meaning. In the virtual world these possibilities and degrees of freedom in navigation are not constrained like the physical world, thus, can be colossal. The question that arises is what are the gains and losses of allowing the learners to freely control their explorations in an information space? To investigate this, we designed three web based learning environments that differed in their navigational structure, but not in their content. The first environment (Linear) was strictly sequential and did not allow any alternation from a defined sequence of the pages. With this Linear structure, the learners had almost no control over their navigation as they could only continue to the next page in the sequence or go back to the previous page. The second environment (Star) partially restricted control by connecting the webpages through a central homepage. The third environment (Interconnected) gave full navigational control to the participants, as every webpage was accessible from each of the other webpages. Detailed navigational behaviour was recorded and learning efficiency was measured. Participants answered the same questions immediately after learning and also after a period of two weeks in order to evaluate both short and long term learning outcomes. In this paper, we describe and interpret the results from the experiment with special focus on how control in web based learning enhances efficiency in one case; while hinders performance in others.
This study examined how different types of 3D visualizations (interactive 3D animation, 3D animation, and static 3D illustrations) combined with narration and text affect learning among 212 eighth grade students in Greece. The study tested an interactive multimedia application on methods of separating mixtures that was produced in three versions differing only in the type of visualization. The results showed that versions with interactive 3D animations and 3D animations increased student interest and engagement. However, the version with static 3D illustrations allowed students more control over their learning pace and placed less cognitive load on working memory.
This document discusses research on using mobile technologies to support learning. It begins by reviewing how ubiquitous computing has enabled new ways to support mobile workers and learners. Three case studies are then described that examine how mobile devices can be used as cognitive tools to scaffold everyday activities and support collaborative learning. Specifically, the studies explore using sentence openers on mobile devices to structure collaboration, designing fine-grained instruction to integrate mobile learning, and examining how deeply structured learning designs impact student outcomes. The document argues that mobile technologies hold potential as cognitive tools to facilitate complex collaborative learning when integrated thoughtfully into pedagogical designs.
This document presents a cognitive theory of multimedia learning based on dual coding theory, cognitive load theory, and constructivist learning theory. The theory aims to guide the design of multimedia instructional messages to promote understanding. The document discusses challenges in designing effective multimedia learning environments and describes research testing principles derived from the cognitive theory. The research focuses on computer-based multimedia explanations of how systems work and evaluates understanding through problem-solving transfer tasks.
The document discusses how multimedia can enhance student learning if properly designed based on principles of how the brain processes information. It explains that the brain has limited working memory but can process more information if multimedia uses both visual and auditory channels. Effective multimedia presents words and pictures together, focuses learner attention, and excludes extraneous information. It should be interactive, activate prior knowledge, and engage learners to help information transfer from working memory to long-term memory.
This document discusses classifying user preferences of web learning systems using a neural network with genetic algorithm optimization. It begins with an abstract describing using cognitive attributes from user questionnaires to train classifiers to identify areas for improving a web learning system's layout. A multilayer perceptron neural network was proposed to classify user preferences, and genetic algorithm was used to optimize the neural network parameters to improve performance. 182 students were given questionnaires assessing their cognitive responses to known and unknown subjects on a learning website to collect training data for the proposed genetically optimized neural network classifier.
This document provides a theoretical framework for examining how emergent mobile technologies can be used as cognitive tools to facilitate collaborative learning. It discusses key concepts including distributed cognition, which views cognition as distributed among people, artifacts, and symbols. Cognitive tools are any tools that enhance cognitive processes during thinking and learning. The document also discusses constructivism and the idea that learning involves actively constructing knowledge through social interactions. It provides background on three empirical case studies examining how mobile technologies can support collaborative learning in authentic contexts through structured instructional design.
Laru, J. & Järvelä, S. (2004). Scaffolding different learning activities with...Jari Laru
Laru, J. & Järvelä, S. (2004). Scaffolding different learning activities with mobile tools in three everyday contexts. In P. Gerjets, P. A. Kirschner, J. Elen & R. Joiner (Eds.), Instructional design for effective and enjoyable computer-supported learning. Proceedings of the EARLI SIGs Instructional Design and Learning and Instruction with Computers (pp.11-21). Tübingen: Knowledge Media Research Center.
GIVING THE LEARNERS CONTROL OF NAVIGATION: COGNITIVE GAINS AND LOSSESTamas Makany
Web based learning often involves exploration of the information space similar to the exploration of space in the real world. Initial paths taken in a novel physical or virtual environment will not only guide the discoveries of what the environment contains, but also formulate the underlying organising principles. The suggested route in a museum frequently presents artworks that are either chronological or conceptually tied together. Deviating from this –and taking a route of our own– might be either confusing or insightful. The structure of presenting the information and the control that the learners have in exploring it, plays a major role in determining mental representations and meaning. In the virtual world these possibilities and degrees of freedom in navigation are not constrained like the physical world, thus, can be colossal. The question that arises is what are the gains and losses of allowing the learners to freely control their explorations in an information space? To investigate this, we designed three web based learning environments that differed in their navigational structure, but not in their content. The first environment (Linear) was strictly sequential and did not allow any alternation from a defined sequence of the pages. With this Linear structure, the learners had almost no control over their navigation as they could only continue to the next page in the sequence or go back to the previous page. The second environment (Star) partially restricted control by connecting the webpages through a central homepage. The third environment (Interconnected) gave full navigational control to the participants, as every webpage was accessible from each of the other webpages. Detailed navigational behaviour was recorded and learning efficiency was measured. Participants answered the same questions immediately after learning and also after a period of two weeks in order to evaluate both short and long term learning outcomes. In this paper, we describe and interpret the results from the experiment with special focus on how control in web based learning enhances efficiency in one case; while hinders performance in others.
Designing e-tivities to increase learning-to-learn abilitieseLearning Papers
Authors: Maria Elisabetta Cigognini, Maria Chiara Pettenati.
In this paper we present a detailed set of e-tivities framed in a learning design context. The e-tivities use Internet tools for teaching Personal Knowledge Management skills (PKM) to adult learners.
The concept of ubiquitous computing is notoriously documented and successfully applied as society at large
has blissfully accepted and heavily relies upon the pervasive and omnipresence of the online network to
wirelessly connect and seamlessly access the massive knowledge-base and social media. On the other hand,
smart environments are a complex research area that require meticulous attention and in-depth
investigation before being employed as they interact directly with the users. When both these areas come
together within an educational environment, the necessity and exigency of ensuring safe and sound
conditions escalate even more. In this paper, we present ubiquitous learning as one of a number of elearning
affordances within a new learning model as it factors in to addresses one particular aspect of a
smart classroom. The justifications, challenges, and recommendations of embodying our philosophical
concept within a working model are also put forward in what could potentially be the next generation
model of physical classrooms.
(figures inserted)Online and In Class Applications of Neurobiological Animati...Jenny Z. Xu
This study examined the effectiveness of educational animations for teaching neurobiology topics both in the classroom and online via social media. In the classroom experiment, students who viewed animations during lectures performed better on exam questions related to the material compared to students who did not view animations. In the online experiment, social media users who viewed animations scored higher on post-tests about the neurobiology topics than those who read text passages, though many users did not complete the full study. The results provide evidence that multimedia animations can improve learning of complex scientific topics both in traditional and online educational settings.
Efficacy of learning digital sources versus printAlexander Decker
1. The document summarizes a study that compares long-term memory recall between learning from digital sources versus print sources.
2. The study involved 76 female students divided into two groups - one that learned from print and one from digital. It measured variables like memory recall grading and item repetition frequency.
3. Contrary to previous evidence, the results found no statistically significant differences between the two groups in terms of the shift from episodic to semantic memory when accounting for confounding factors. The shift from random guessing to remembering occurred faster with digital learning.
Tangible user interface design for learners with different multiple intellige...IJECEIAES
The creation of learning activities responsive to learners with different basic skills has been limited due to a classroom environment and applied technologies. The goals of this research were to develop Tang-MI, a game with a tangible user interface supporting primary school learners’ analytical skills based on the theory of multiple intelligences (MI), and to present design guidelines for a tangible user interface suitable for learners in different MI groups. In this research, the Tangible user interface for multiple intelligence (Tang-MI) was tested with thirty students initially evaluated for their multiple intelligences. The learners’ usage behavior was observed and recorded while the students performed the assigned tasks. The behavioral data were analyzed and grouped into behaviors occurring before performing the tasks, during the tasks, and after completing the tasks. Based on the learners’ usage behavior, the tangible user interface design guidelines for learners in different MI groups were proposed concerning physical equipment design, question design, interactive program design, audio design, and animated visual feedback design. These guidelines would help educators build learning games that respond to the learners’ intelligence styles and enhance students’ motivation to learn.
This study explored the use of the educational video game MinecraftEdu in middle school classrooms. It analyzed student outcomes, attitudes of teachers, students and parents, and interactions on the virtual learning environment Edmodo. While student academic outcomes did not significantly improve and some parents had negative views, most students found MinecraftEdu fun, engaging, and a good way to explore and learn about history in an immersive virtual environment. The study used a quasi-experimental design to compare students who used MinecraftEdu to a control group, surveys to assess attitudes, and message analysis to study online interactions. Overall, the results suggest video games may enhance motivation and creativity even if they do not directly improve test scores.
This document analyzes the relationship between student achievement in classic academic subjects (e.g. language arts, math, history, science) and computer-related subjects. The study examines grade data from freshman students in 2000-2001. Results show the average grade across subjects was a B, and computer grades tended to reflect trends in classic subjects. For example, students whose classic grades increased also tended to have higher computer grades. However, males on average saw declining grades overall compared to females. The document concludes the computer subject grade can often indicate trends in a student's overall academic performance.
Mobile collaborative learning dr.azizah25 octHasnain Zafar
This document discusses exploring learner perceptions of mobile collaborative learning using smart devices. It begins with introducing the topic and background, then outlines the problem statement, research questions, and objectives. The document reviews relevant literature on mobile learning, collaborative learning, and their benefits. It proposes a conceptual framework and mixed methods research design to understand learner perceptions and design effective mobile collaborative learning objects. The overall goal is to reduce pedagogical gaps and promote innovative mobile collaboration activities.
Mayer’s Multimedia Principles and The Cognitive Approach, Their Implications ...English TVTC
1) The document discusses Mayer's principles of multimedia learning and their implications for an ESP computing course. It outlines key cognitive learning theories that emphasize structuring information and relating new concepts to prior knowledge.
2) Some multimedia principles discussed include the multimedia principle of learning better from words and pictures than words alone, and the spatial contiguity principle of learning better when corresponding words and pictures are near each other.
3) As an example, the computing lesson presents course content through illustrations with labeled parts and printed words to align with cognitive and multimedia principles. Feedback is also provided to students.
Formative Interfaces for Scaffolding Self-Regulated Learning in PLEseLearning Papers
Authors: Mustafa Ali Türker, Stefan Zingel.
A Personal Learning Environment (PLE) is a software application (desktop or web-based) which allows students to organise learning resources and publish individual outcomes. Although PLEs are built for bottom-up personal use, they involve communication and increasingly social tools, promoting networked learning scenarios. Knowledge management, syndicating resources, trustworthiness and assessment on the assemblage of resources are actual research issues related to the improvement of PLEs.
Universal Design for Learning (UDL) began as an effort to help learners with disabilities succeed in general education by adapting existing curriculum. Educators realized it was better to design curriculum from the start using UDL principles of multiple means of representation, engagement, and expression. UDL is informed by three brain networks - recognition, strategic, and affective - and provides multiple options to appeal to these networks through representation, expression and engagement. Technology supports effective implementation of UDL by providing flexible tools that appeal to the brain networks.
The document discusses learning and teaching in a synchronous collaborative environment. It proposes combining an innovative methodology for "same-time, same-place" interactive learning with group support systems technology, which is designed to provide computer-mediated collaboration in addition to communication. This allows students to overcome barriers to effective collaborative learning like shyness, while still experiencing face-to-face interaction. Group support systems enable parallel and anonymous work, with an equal opportunity for all students to contribute ideas simultaneously. Research suggests this approach can improve critical thinking, problem solving, communication skills, and participation compared to traditional classrooms.
2.[8 12]developing teaching material for e-learning environmentAlexander Decker
1) The document discusses key elements to consider when developing effective teaching materials for e-learning environments, including activity, scenario, feedback, delivery, context, content design and writing, and materials development.
2) It emphasizes the importance of engaging activities that actively involve learners, as well as interesting scenarios that provide context and stimulate learning.
3) Effective feedback is also highlighted as an important element to amplify learning and allow students to improve their skills and knowledge. The various feedback strategies that can be used are discussed.
11.developing teaching material for e learning environmentAlexander Decker
This document summarizes key elements in developing effective teaching materials for e-learning environments. It discusses activity, scenario, feedback, delivery context, influence, content design and writing, and materials development. Effective e-learning relies on engaging tasks and interesting scenarios to provide meaningful learning experiences. Feedback is also important to amplify learning. The content, delivery, and broader context must be designed appropriately. Developing e-learning materials requires considering pedagogical principles, instructional design strategies, and technical standards to create quality online learning content and experiences.
Educating digital natives to educate digital immigrantsChye Kok Ho
The document summarizes a discussion on educating digital natives. It covered topics such as defining digital native and immigrant generations, how the brain is shaped by technology use, approaches to teaching machines, constructivist pedagogy, and ethics of online learning. The discussion addressed balancing formal education with catering to digital native learning styles, using technology as a cognitive tool rather than replacing human teaching, and designing blended models that optimize both online and in-person learning.
The Split Attention Principle In Multimedia Learningjmborda86
The document discusses principles of multimedia learning and cognitive load theory. It defines the split-attention principle as avoiding formats that require learners to split their attention between multiple sources of information. This reduces extraneous cognitive load. The spatial contiguity principle states corresponding words and pictures should be near each other, while the temporal contiguity principle is they should be simultaneous rather than successive. Questions at the end ask about definitions of these principles and how split attention applies to multimedia learning and cognitive load theory.
Development of interactive instructional model using augmented reality based ...IJITE
The research aims to develop an interactive instructional model usingaugmented reality based on
edutainment to enhance emotional quotientand evaluate the model. Two phases of the research will be
carried out: a development and an evaluation of the model. Samples are experts in the field of IT, child
psychology, and 7th grade curriculum management. Ten experts are selected by purposive sampling
method. The obtained data are analyzed using mean and standard deviation.
The research result demonstrates the following findings:
1) The results of this research show that Model consists of 3 elements: IIAR, EduLA, and EQ. EQ is a
means to assess EQ based on Time Series Experimental Design using 2 kinds of tools; i.e. EQ Assessment
by programs in tablet computers, and EQ Assessment by behavioral observation.
(2The ten experts have evaluated the model and commented that the developed model showed high
suitability.
Child Education Through Animation: An Experimental Study ijcga
Teachers have tried to teach their students by introducing text books along with verbal instructions in
traditional education system. However, teaching and learning methods could be changed for developing
Information and Communication Technology (ICT). It's time to adapt students with interactive learning
system so that they can improve their learning, catching, and memorizing capabilities. It is indispensable to
create high quality and realistic leaning environment for students. Visual learning can be easier to
understand and deal with their learning. We developed visual learning materials (an overview of solar
system) in the form of video for students of primary level using different multimedia application tools. The
objective of this paper is to examine the impact of student’s abilities to acquire new knowledge or skills
through visual learning materials and blended leaning that is integration of visual learning materials with
teacher’s instructions. We visited a primary school in Dhaka city for this study and conducted teaching
with three different groups of students (i) teacher taught students by traditional system on same materials
and marked level of student’s ability to adapt by a set of questions (ii) another group was taught with only
visual learning material and assessment was done with 15 questionnaires, (iii) the third group was taught
with the video of solar system combined with teacher’s instructions and assessed with the same
questionnaires. This integration of visual materials (solar system) with verbal instructions is a blended
approach of learning. The interactive blended approach greatly promoted students ability of acquisition of
knowledge and skills. Students response and perception were very positive towards the blended technique
than the other two methods. This interactive blending leaning system may be an appropriate method
especially for school children.
Dysgraphia detection based on convolutional neural networks and child-robot i...IJECEIAES
Dysgraphia is a disorder of expression with the writing of letters, words, and numbers. Dysgraphia is one of the learning disabilities attributed to the educational sector, which has a strong impact on the academic, motor, and emotional aspects of the individual. The purpose of this study is to identify dysgraphia in children by creating an engaging robot-mediated activity, to collect a new dataset of Latin digits written exclusively by children aged 6 to 12 years. An interactive scenario that explains and demonstrates the steps involved in handwriting digits is created using the verbal and non-verbal behaviors of the social humanoid robot Nao. Therefore, we have collected a dataset that contains 11,347 characters written by 174 participants with and without dysgraphia. And through the advent of deep learning technologies and their success in various fields, we have developed an approach based on these methods. The proposed approach was tested on the generated database. We performed a classification with a convolutional neural network (CNN) to identify dysgraphia in children. The results show that the performance of our model is promising, reaching an accuracy of 91%.
A presentation sharing some of my sabbatical work with the EU LearningLayers project, draws upon Cook (2013)
Cook, J. (2010). Mobile Phones as Mediating Tools Within Augmented Contexts for Development. International Journal of Mobile and Blended Learning, 2(3), 1-12, July-September. Link to paper http://goo.gl/NFWnSZ
This Children are future of a society within a country. They should be provided with all round educational development since educating children has many advantages. If they are educated, they can face any problem and this makes them strong and happy. In other words the growth of a country is dependent on its learned population. Children with special education needs have problems to develop cognitive abilities like thinking, learning and obtain new knowledge and concept. It may also be required to improve their conduct, communication skills and interactions with their environment. It is required to develop customizable and compliant applications designed to support them in adapting with respect to the current situations they face and thus take actions appropriately. Such applications would provide them the assistance to allow them frame their learning essentials and help to process to the diverse sensory and cognitive impairments including the mobility issues. This research will be based on artificial intelligence concept and will be self-adaptable. Besides, in many cases they have the opportunity to perform activities that previously were not accessible to them, because of the interface and contents of the activities have been adapted specifically to them. The study also suggests that the repertoire of types of activities provided is suitable for learning purposes with students with impairments. Finally, the use of electronic devices and multimedia contents increases their interest in learning and attention.
Designing e-tivities to increase learning-to-learn abilitieseLearning Papers
Authors: Maria Elisabetta Cigognini, Maria Chiara Pettenati.
In this paper we present a detailed set of e-tivities framed in a learning design context. The e-tivities use Internet tools for teaching Personal Knowledge Management skills (PKM) to adult learners.
The concept of ubiquitous computing is notoriously documented and successfully applied as society at large
has blissfully accepted and heavily relies upon the pervasive and omnipresence of the online network to
wirelessly connect and seamlessly access the massive knowledge-base and social media. On the other hand,
smart environments are a complex research area that require meticulous attention and in-depth
investigation before being employed as they interact directly with the users. When both these areas come
together within an educational environment, the necessity and exigency of ensuring safe and sound
conditions escalate even more. In this paper, we present ubiquitous learning as one of a number of elearning
affordances within a new learning model as it factors in to addresses one particular aspect of a
smart classroom. The justifications, challenges, and recommendations of embodying our philosophical
concept within a working model are also put forward in what could potentially be the next generation
model of physical classrooms.
(figures inserted)Online and In Class Applications of Neurobiological Animati...Jenny Z. Xu
This study examined the effectiveness of educational animations for teaching neurobiology topics both in the classroom and online via social media. In the classroom experiment, students who viewed animations during lectures performed better on exam questions related to the material compared to students who did not view animations. In the online experiment, social media users who viewed animations scored higher on post-tests about the neurobiology topics than those who read text passages, though many users did not complete the full study. The results provide evidence that multimedia animations can improve learning of complex scientific topics both in traditional and online educational settings.
Efficacy of learning digital sources versus printAlexander Decker
1. The document summarizes a study that compares long-term memory recall between learning from digital sources versus print sources.
2. The study involved 76 female students divided into two groups - one that learned from print and one from digital. It measured variables like memory recall grading and item repetition frequency.
3. Contrary to previous evidence, the results found no statistically significant differences between the two groups in terms of the shift from episodic to semantic memory when accounting for confounding factors. The shift from random guessing to remembering occurred faster with digital learning.
Tangible user interface design for learners with different multiple intellige...IJECEIAES
The creation of learning activities responsive to learners with different basic skills has been limited due to a classroom environment and applied technologies. The goals of this research were to develop Tang-MI, a game with a tangible user interface supporting primary school learners’ analytical skills based on the theory of multiple intelligences (MI), and to present design guidelines for a tangible user interface suitable for learners in different MI groups. In this research, the Tangible user interface for multiple intelligence (Tang-MI) was tested with thirty students initially evaluated for their multiple intelligences. The learners’ usage behavior was observed and recorded while the students performed the assigned tasks. The behavioral data were analyzed and grouped into behaviors occurring before performing the tasks, during the tasks, and after completing the tasks. Based on the learners’ usage behavior, the tangible user interface design guidelines for learners in different MI groups were proposed concerning physical equipment design, question design, interactive program design, audio design, and animated visual feedback design. These guidelines would help educators build learning games that respond to the learners’ intelligence styles and enhance students’ motivation to learn.
This study explored the use of the educational video game MinecraftEdu in middle school classrooms. It analyzed student outcomes, attitudes of teachers, students and parents, and interactions on the virtual learning environment Edmodo. While student academic outcomes did not significantly improve and some parents had negative views, most students found MinecraftEdu fun, engaging, and a good way to explore and learn about history in an immersive virtual environment. The study used a quasi-experimental design to compare students who used MinecraftEdu to a control group, surveys to assess attitudes, and message analysis to study online interactions. Overall, the results suggest video games may enhance motivation and creativity even if they do not directly improve test scores.
This document analyzes the relationship between student achievement in classic academic subjects (e.g. language arts, math, history, science) and computer-related subjects. The study examines grade data from freshman students in 2000-2001. Results show the average grade across subjects was a B, and computer grades tended to reflect trends in classic subjects. For example, students whose classic grades increased also tended to have higher computer grades. However, males on average saw declining grades overall compared to females. The document concludes the computer subject grade can often indicate trends in a student's overall academic performance.
Mobile collaborative learning dr.azizah25 octHasnain Zafar
This document discusses exploring learner perceptions of mobile collaborative learning using smart devices. It begins with introducing the topic and background, then outlines the problem statement, research questions, and objectives. The document reviews relevant literature on mobile learning, collaborative learning, and their benefits. It proposes a conceptual framework and mixed methods research design to understand learner perceptions and design effective mobile collaborative learning objects. The overall goal is to reduce pedagogical gaps and promote innovative mobile collaboration activities.
Mayer’s Multimedia Principles and The Cognitive Approach, Their Implications ...English TVTC
1) The document discusses Mayer's principles of multimedia learning and their implications for an ESP computing course. It outlines key cognitive learning theories that emphasize structuring information and relating new concepts to prior knowledge.
2) Some multimedia principles discussed include the multimedia principle of learning better from words and pictures than words alone, and the spatial contiguity principle of learning better when corresponding words and pictures are near each other.
3) As an example, the computing lesson presents course content through illustrations with labeled parts and printed words to align with cognitive and multimedia principles. Feedback is also provided to students.
Formative Interfaces for Scaffolding Self-Regulated Learning in PLEseLearning Papers
Authors: Mustafa Ali Türker, Stefan Zingel.
A Personal Learning Environment (PLE) is a software application (desktop or web-based) which allows students to organise learning resources and publish individual outcomes. Although PLEs are built for bottom-up personal use, they involve communication and increasingly social tools, promoting networked learning scenarios. Knowledge management, syndicating resources, trustworthiness and assessment on the assemblage of resources are actual research issues related to the improvement of PLEs.
Universal Design for Learning (UDL) began as an effort to help learners with disabilities succeed in general education by adapting existing curriculum. Educators realized it was better to design curriculum from the start using UDL principles of multiple means of representation, engagement, and expression. UDL is informed by three brain networks - recognition, strategic, and affective - and provides multiple options to appeal to these networks through representation, expression and engagement. Technology supports effective implementation of UDL by providing flexible tools that appeal to the brain networks.
The document discusses learning and teaching in a synchronous collaborative environment. It proposes combining an innovative methodology for "same-time, same-place" interactive learning with group support systems technology, which is designed to provide computer-mediated collaboration in addition to communication. This allows students to overcome barriers to effective collaborative learning like shyness, while still experiencing face-to-face interaction. Group support systems enable parallel and anonymous work, with an equal opportunity for all students to contribute ideas simultaneously. Research suggests this approach can improve critical thinking, problem solving, communication skills, and participation compared to traditional classrooms.
2.[8 12]developing teaching material for e-learning environmentAlexander Decker
1) The document discusses key elements to consider when developing effective teaching materials for e-learning environments, including activity, scenario, feedback, delivery, context, content design and writing, and materials development.
2) It emphasizes the importance of engaging activities that actively involve learners, as well as interesting scenarios that provide context and stimulate learning.
3) Effective feedback is also highlighted as an important element to amplify learning and allow students to improve their skills and knowledge. The various feedback strategies that can be used are discussed.
11.developing teaching material for e learning environmentAlexander Decker
This document summarizes key elements in developing effective teaching materials for e-learning environments. It discusses activity, scenario, feedback, delivery context, influence, content design and writing, and materials development. Effective e-learning relies on engaging tasks and interesting scenarios to provide meaningful learning experiences. Feedback is also important to amplify learning. The content, delivery, and broader context must be designed appropriately. Developing e-learning materials requires considering pedagogical principles, instructional design strategies, and technical standards to create quality online learning content and experiences.
Educating digital natives to educate digital immigrantsChye Kok Ho
The document summarizes a discussion on educating digital natives. It covered topics such as defining digital native and immigrant generations, how the brain is shaped by technology use, approaches to teaching machines, constructivist pedagogy, and ethics of online learning. The discussion addressed balancing formal education with catering to digital native learning styles, using technology as a cognitive tool rather than replacing human teaching, and designing blended models that optimize both online and in-person learning.
The Split Attention Principle In Multimedia Learningjmborda86
The document discusses principles of multimedia learning and cognitive load theory. It defines the split-attention principle as avoiding formats that require learners to split their attention between multiple sources of information. This reduces extraneous cognitive load. The spatial contiguity principle states corresponding words and pictures should be near each other, while the temporal contiguity principle is they should be simultaneous rather than successive. Questions at the end ask about definitions of these principles and how split attention applies to multimedia learning and cognitive load theory.
Development of interactive instructional model using augmented reality based ...IJITE
The research aims to develop an interactive instructional model usingaugmented reality based on
edutainment to enhance emotional quotientand evaluate the model. Two phases of the research will be
carried out: a development and an evaluation of the model. Samples are experts in the field of IT, child
psychology, and 7th grade curriculum management. Ten experts are selected by purposive sampling
method. The obtained data are analyzed using mean and standard deviation.
The research result demonstrates the following findings:
1) The results of this research show that Model consists of 3 elements: IIAR, EduLA, and EQ. EQ is a
means to assess EQ based on Time Series Experimental Design using 2 kinds of tools; i.e. EQ Assessment
by programs in tablet computers, and EQ Assessment by behavioral observation.
(2The ten experts have evaluated the model and commented that the developed model showed high
suitability.
Child Education Through Animation: An Experimental Study ijcga
Teachers have tried to teach their students by introducing text books along with verbal instructions in
traditional education system. However, teaching and learning methods could be changed for developing
Information and Communication Technology (ICT). It's time to adapt students with interactive learning
system so that they can improve their learning, catching, and memorizing capabilities. It is indispensable to
create high quality and realistic leaning environment for students. Visual learning can be easier to
understand and deal with their learning. We developed visual learning materials (an overview of solar
system) in the form of video for students of primary level using different multimedia application tools. The
objective of this paper is to examine the impact of student’s abilities to acquire new knowledge or skills
through visual learning materials and blended leaning that is integration of visual learning materials with
teacher’s instructions. We visited a primary school in Dhaka city for this study and conducted teaching
with three different groups of students (i) teacher taught students by traditional system on same materials
and marked level of student’s ability to adapt by a set of questions (ii) another group was taught with only
visual learning material and assessment was done with 15 questionnaires, (iii) the third group was taught
with the video of solar system combined with teacher’s instructions and assessed with the same
questionnaires. This integration of visual materials (solar system) with verbal instructions is a blended
approach of learning. The interactive blended approach greatly promoted students ability of acquisition of
knowledge and skills. Students response and perception were very positive towards the blended technique
than the other two methods. This interactive blending leaning system may be an appropriate method
especially for school children.
Dysgraphia detection based on convolutional neural networks and child-robot i...IJECEIAES
Dysgraphia is a disorder of expression with the writing of letters, words, and numbers. Dysgraphia is one of the learning disabilities attributed to the educational sector, which has a strong impact on the academic, motor, and emotional aspects of the individual. The purpose of this study is to identify dysgraphia in children by creating an engaging robot-mediated activity, to collect a new dataset of Latin digits written exclusively by children aged 6 to 12 years. An interactive scenario that explains and demonstrates the steps involved in handwriting digits is created using the verbal and non-verbal behaviors of the social humanoid robot Nao. Therefore, we have collected a dataset that contains 11,347 characters written by 174 participants with and without dysgraphia. And through the advent of deep learning technologies and their success in various fields, we have developed an approach based on these methods. The proposed approach was tested on the generated database. We performed a classification with a convolutional neural network (CNN) to identify dysgraphia in children. The results show that the performance of our model is promising, reaching an accuracy of 91%.
A presentation sharing some of my sabbatical work with the EU LearningLayers project, draws upon Cook (2013)
Cook, J. (2010). Mobile Phones as Mediating Tools Within Augmented Contexts for Development. International Journal of Mobile and Blended Learning, 2(3), 1-12, July-September. Link to paper http://goo.gl/NFWnSZ
This Children are future of a society within a country. They should be provided with all round educational development since educating children has many advantages. If they are educated, they can face any problem and this makes them strong and happy. In other words the growth of a country is dependent on its learned population. Children with special education needs have problems to develop cognitive abilities like thinking, learning and obtain new knowledge and concept. It may also be required to improve their conduct, communication skills and interactions with their environment. It is required to develop customizable and compliant applications designed to support them in adapting with respect to the current situations they face and thus take actions appropriately. Such applications would provide them the assistance to allow them frame their learning essentials and help to process to the diverse sensory and cognitive impairments including the mobility issues. This research will be based on artificial intelligence concept and will be self-adaptable. Besides, in many cases they have the opportunity to perform activities that previously were not accessible to them, because of the interface and contents of the activities have been adapted specifically to them. The study also suggests that the repertoire of types of activities provided is suitable for learning purposes with students with impairments. Finally, the use of electronic devices and multimedia contents increases their interest in learning and attention.
AN INTELLIGENT SELF-ADAPTABLE APPLICATION TO SUPPORT CHILDREN EDUCATION AND L...ijcsit
ABSTRACT
This Children are future of a society within a country. They should be provided with all round educational development since educating children has many advantages. If they are educated, they can face any problem and this makes them strong and happy. In other words the growth of a country is dependent on its learned population. Children with special education needs have problems to develop cognitive abilities like thinking, learning and obtain new knowledge and concept. It may also be required to improve their conduct, communication skills and interactions with their environment. It is required to develop customizable and compliant applications designed to support them in adapting with respect to the current situations they face and thus take actions appropriately. Such applications would provide them the assistance to allow them frame their learning essentials and help to process to the diverse sensory and cognitive impairments including the mobility issues. This research will be based on artificial intelligence concept and will be self-adaptable. Besides, in many cases they have the opportunity to perform activities that previously were not accessible to them, because of the interface and contents of the activities have been adapted specifically to them. The study also suggests that the repertoire of types of activities provided is suitable for learning purposes with students with impairments. Finally, the use of electronic devices and multimedia contents increases their interest in learning and attention.
The way adults pursue their education through life is changing as the technology around us
relentlessly continues to enhance our quality of life and further enhances every aspect of the
different tasks we set out to perform. This exploratory paper looks into how every adult can
embody a comprehensive set of academic services, platforms and systems to assist every
individual in the educational goals that one sets. A combination of three distinct technologies
are presented together with how they not only come together but complement each other around
a person in what is usually referred to as a personal area network. The network in this case
incorporates an intelligent personal learning environment providing personalised content,
intelligent wearables closer to the user to provide additional contextual customisation, and a
surrounding ambient intelligent environment to close a trio of technologies around every
individual. Each of the three research domains will be presented to uncover how each
contributes to the personal network that embodies what one usually expects from an educational
institution. Three distinct prototype systems have been developed, tested and deployed within a
functional system that will be presented in this paper.
This chapter introduces the concept of learning design and argues that explicitly representing and sharing the design of learning activities can help teachers create more effective learning environments. It discusses the changing context of education and needs of modern learners. A new learning design methodology is needed to help teachers design pedagogically sound learning that leverages new technologies. The chapter lays out an argument for shifting to a more systematic, explicit approach to design using tools and methods grounded in research.
This document discusses how multimedia can be used effectively in online learning by reducing cognitive load on learners. It explores theories from neuroscience, cognitive load theory, and brain-based learning that provide principles for instructional design. Specifically, it outlines Clark and Mayer's seven principles for multimedia learning design, including using words and graphics, locating illustrations near text, splitting information across audio and visual channels, avoiding redundant information, removing extraneous material, using a conversational style, and segmenting complex lessons. Applying these principles can improve learner-content interactions and course quality by engaging learners and facilitating knowledge construction.
A “BIRD’S EYE VIEW” ON COMMUNICATION ACTS IN A CLASSROOM OF LOW LITERACY ADULTSIJITE
This paper starts by discussing the relevance of dialogues in Adult Education and Training courses with
low levels of literacy. In this group, the educational challenges are complex, and innovating the knowledge
creation process involves a better understanding of the teaching/learning process. With these case study,
we pretend to understand which Communicative Acts are effective in adult learning process, mainly in
adults with low literacy. Based on a mixed methods, applied to a convenience sample, we used an
ethnographic approach, and the Grounded Theory Methodology. Using the Contextual Design approach,
we developed several models of the context (work models) and got a bird's-eye view of the way the
communicational acts and the dynamic acts flow in the classroom. The results showed that it was
important to integrate the learners' emotions in an existing framework, the SEDA Framework. We found
also essential to expand the Communicative Acts coding, with a new set of 17 codes organized in 3
categories in order to understand better the flow of communication in the classroom.
DEVELOPMENT OF INTERACTIVE INSTRUCTIONAL MODEL USING AUGMENTED REALITY BASED ...IJITE
The research aims to develop an interactive instructional model usingaugmented reality based on
edutainment to enhance emotional quotientand evaluate the model. Two phases of the research will be
carried out: a development and an evaluation of the model. Samples are experts in the field of IT, child
psychology, and 7th grade curriculum management. Ten experts are selected by purposive sampling
method. The obtained data are analyzed using mean and standard deviation.
The research result demonstrates the following findings:
1) The results of this research show that Model consists of 3 elements: IIAR, EduLA, and EQ. EQ is a
means to assess EQ based on Time Series Experimental Design using 2 kinds of tools; i.e. EQ Assessment
by programs in tablet computers, and EQ Assessment by behavioral observation.
2 ( The ten experts have evaluated the model and commented that the developed model showed high
suitability.
DEVELOPMENT OF INTERACTIVE INSTRUCTIONAL MODEL USING AUGMENTED REALITY BASED ...IJITE
The document describes the development of an interactive instructional model using augmented reality and edutainment to enhance emotional quotient. It includes:
1) The development of a model consisting of three elements: interactive instructional augmented reality, edutainment learning activities, and emotional quotient assessment.
2) An evaluation of the model by 10 experts found it to have high suitability, with the interactive instructional augmented reality steps and edutainment learning activity steps rated as having the highest suitability.
3) The experts' evaluation demonstrated that the model's components, steps, and activities were highly suitable for effectively using augmented reality and edutainment to enhance students' emotional quotient.
This portfolio discusses the student's experience taking an educational technology course. It provides an overview of key concepts in educational technology including how technology can be used as an informative, constructive, co-constructive, and situating tool. The portfolio also examines four conceptual models of learning - meaningful learning, discovery learning, generative learning, and constructivism. It reflects on how the educational technology course helped the student learn to incorporate technology to facilitate projects and better communicate with students.
A visit to local Math Museum: Using tablets creatively in classroomNikolaos Manaras
Tablets with their simple interface, portability, speed, affordability and their variety of apps are quickly moving into schools across Europe and a growing number of teachers are experimenting with tablets or are interested in doing so. In the context of monitoring the MOOC “Creative use of Tablets in Schools” provided by the European Schoolnet Academy, the final activity was to create a lesson or a project plan. To design the lesson plan we used a very nice tool called the “Learning
Designer” which was developed by the London Institute of Education. According the Scenario student will visit the local Math Museum during Mathematical Week and create Augmented Reality posters for the school. From the implementation of this scenario students will come in contact with the beauty of mathematics, its history and get to know great mathematicians and their works.
Abstract - Human learning system is highly sensitive to responsive system according the processing, mapping, motion, auditory and visualization system. Special education system is implemented to overcome the demanded sense of the human special care sensitive signals. This responsive system is balanced and effectively instrumented with modern technological learning pedagogy to bring the special need learners into the normal learning system. In the learning process, cognitive human sensors directly influence the learning effectiveness. This paper attempted to observe the cognitive load such as mental , physical , temporal ,performance , effort and frustration in the long term , short term, working , instant , responsive, process, recollect , reference , instruction and action memory and classify the observed values as per the generalized and specialized properties. The six working loads are observed in the ten types of learning system. The classification analysis aimed to predicate the pattern for learning system for specific learning challenges.
Cognitive Load Persuade Attribute for Special Need Education System Using Dat...ijdmtaiir
Human learning system is highly sensitive to
responsive system according the processing, mapping, motion,
auditory and visualization system. Special education system is
implemented to overcome the demanded sense of the human
special care sensitive signals. This responsive system is
balanced and effectively instrumented with modern
technological learning pedagogy to bring the special need
learners into the normal learning system. In the learning
process, cognitive human sensors directly influence the
learning effectiveness. This paper attempted to observe the
cognitive load such as mental , physical , temporal
,performance , effort and frustration in the long term , short
term, working , instant , responsive, process, recollect ,
reference , instruction and action memory and classify the
observed values as per the generalized and specialized
properties. The six working loads are observed in the ten types
of learning system. The classification analysis aimed to
predicate the pattern for learning system for specific learning
challenges.
Collaborative learning model with virtual team in ubiquitous learning environ...IJITE
The purposes of this research study were: 1) to develop a Collaborative Learning Model with Virtual
Team in u-Learning Environment using Creative Problem-solving Process(U-CCPS Model); 2) to
evaluate a U-CCPS Model. The research procedures were divided into two phases. The first phase was to
develop U-CCPS Model, and the second phase was to evaluate U-CCPS Model. The sample group in this
study consisted of five experts using purposive sampling. Data were analyzed by arithmetic mean and
standard deviation. The research findings were as follows: The U-CCPS learning Model consisted of five
components as follows: 1) Input factors, 2) Process, 3) Control, 4) Output and 5) Feedback. The input
factors consisted of four components as followed: 1) Objectives of U-CCPS Model, 2) Roles of Instructors,
3) Roles of learners and 4) Design of learning media. The process consisted of two components as
followed: 1) Preparation before learning, and 2) Instructional management process. The experts agree
that a U-CCPS Model was highest suitability.
The effect of multimodal learning models on language teaching and learningYu-Zhen Liu
This document discusses the effects of multimodal learning models on language teaching and learning. It begins by introducing multimedia learning and how information and communication technologies have changed the ways we think and communicate. It then discusses principles of multimedia learning, including that combining words and pictures leads to better learning than words alone, and focused attention is important. The document also explores concepts like CALL, multimodality in language learning, and how multimodal models can positively impact the teaching and learning processes.
«Assessment of Digital Resources use in Education - Anatomy of Digital Resources in Learning Generation»
languages, civics curricula, anatomy of different digital tools web 2.0, assessment
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DESIGNING A WORKING MEMORY CAPACITY TEST FOR COGNITIVE-FRIENDLY TANGIBLE MULTIMEDIA
1. The International Journal of Multimedia & Its Applications (IJMA) Vol.8, No.6, December 2016
DOI : 10.5121/ijma.2016.8602 11
DESIGNING A WORKING MEMORY CAPACITY TEST
FOR COGNITIVE-FRIENDLY TANGIBLE
MULTIMEDIA
Chau Kien Tsong1
, Zarina Samsudin2
and Wan Ahmad Jaafar Wan Yahaya3
1
Faculty of Art and Design, Southern University College, Jalan Selatan Utama,
Off Jalan Skudai, 81300 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
2,3
Centre for Instructional Technology and Multimedia, Universiti Sains Malaysia,
11800 USM, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
A working memory capacity (WMC) test called “objects-span tri-tasks” is designed for preschoolers
undergoing treatment using a new genre of multimedia, tangible multimedia, created by the authors. It tests
the dual-functions of the preschoolers’ working memory (WM), namely storage and manipulation capacity,
essential in supporting academic skills. The third task in the test is the overt setting of task engaging the
long-term memory that supports the operation of WM. Tangible multimedia potentially enhances the WMC
of preschoolers to a considerable extent because firstly, it uses tangible objects that are cognitively
appropriate to the “preoperational” stage of preschoolers, and secondly, it simultaneously stimulates three
main sensory channels, prescribed as equally crucial in knowledge acquisition in human memory theories.
A pragmatic significance of the research is that it deepens the scope of multimedia research by looking into
the aspect of cognitive structure which is rarely conducted in the multimedia realm. It also demonstrates an
important step forward in multimedia research by relating WMC to the newly explored tangible
multimedia, which could determine the real capability and value of such system. This paper starts off by
discussing the underlying theories that contribute to the formation of the system and test, followed by its
procedure, and a brief report of a case study.
KEYWORDS
Dual-tasks; multimedia; preschoolers; tangible multimedia; tangible object; working memory capacity
1. INTRODUCTION
Working memory (WM) is an essential factor in supporting academic learning among students
[1]. Correlational research works reveal a close relationship between WM and academic learning
performance in writing [2], reading [3], science [4][5], Mathematics [6] [7], vocabulary
knowledge [8][9] and English learning as a second language learning for adults [10] and early
year children [11][12].
In view of the importance of WM to academic performance, there is a great need to create a
multimedia system that could enhance the WM capacity (WMC) of learners. Close scrutiny
reveals that previous multimedia research associated with cognitive functioning has mainly
focused on memory retention [13][14]. Minimal attention has been given to the attributes that
adapt and are cognitive-friendly to preschoolers’ mental models. In conventional multimedia
systems, information inputs for learning are often solely dependent on visual and auditory sensory
channels. For preschoolers whose cognitive structures are preoperational as signified by Piaget
[15][16], with unskilled motor acuity and limited vocabulary mastery [17], the sole use of visual
and auditory attributes in multimedia is apparently insufficient.
2. The International Journal of Multimedia & Its Applications (IJMA) Vol.8, No.6, December 2016
12
There is also a dearth of research interest given to the possibility of multimedia playing a role in
WM performance. Londe’s [10] research demonstrates that WMC can be greatly improved [18].
Hence, designing a cognitive-friendly multimedia system which takes into account a
preschooler’s WM has the potential to improve both their short- and long-term academic
achievement.
To develop a multimedia system that could enhance WMC, or is cognitive-friendly to
preschoolers, one possible way is to design the system in accordance with the theoretical
frameworks prescribed by Atkinson and Shiffrin’s [19] human memory and Kieras and Meyer’s
[20] EPIC theories. These theories have one commonality, which is the need to engage tactile
sensory channels in knowledge acquisition. By embracing the attribute that stimulates the tactile
senses as part of instructional medium, preschoolers could learn naturally and tangibly. However,
the question now is, how could we manifest the tactile attribute in digital multimedia?
Considering the tactile and spatial characteristics that a tangible object possesses over other
means of instruction, we are of the opinion that tangible objects serve as an excellent means to
demonstrate tangibility in digital multimedia.
Figure 1. Tangible Multimedia: Adding Tangible Objects to Multimedia
There is a plethora of advantages in using tangible objects, which justifies the use of tangible
objects in multimedia learning. A tangible object denotes an intuitive and natural way of learning
[21]. Klemmer, Hartmann, and Takayama [22] pointed out that, “a natural place to start is with
our hands, as they are simultaneously a means for complex expression and sensation …” (p. 143).
If hands are prevented from learning, various cognitive operations such as spatial working
memory and lexical retrieval will be degraded [23]. Hands are crucial for children in learning
[22]. Children learn through hands as natural motor response in human’s daily life. Similar to
toddlers, they like to touch things, and without realising, they learn, especially when they are
engaged with concrete activities meaningful to them [24].
In defining concrete activities, Zuckerman and Resnick [25] asked, “How do we ‘concretise the
abstract’? A physical, tangible interface can help. Children can touch it, can tinker with it …..” (p.
811). Manches [26] is of the opinion that “concrete” is in the sense of being connected with
perceptual experience. Maria Montessori acknowledges the role of physical objects in the
children’s mind. She said, “Children build their mental image of the world, through the action and
motor responses; and, with physical handling, they become conscious of reality” [27][28]. Ample
literature can be cited in support of the tangible objects [29][30][31]. Thus, we have a cogent
reason to believe that tangible objects enhance the operation of WM of preschoolers.
Augmented with tangible objects, multimedia learning can also be used to maximise learning
performance and at the same time, lessen the amount of cognitive efforts in WM. Based on the
idea of load sharing in cognitive load and dual-coding theories [32][33], additional tactile sensory
could offload the burden of cognitive operation [29][26]. This is because the processing load is
spread over three sensory channels of learners, thereby leaving a larger portion of memory space
in each channel for learning. Oh [34] stated that simultaneous processing of information using the
3. The International Journal of Multimedia & Its Applications (IJMA) Vol.8, No.6, December 2016
13
two channels results in an additive effect on learning. In our opinion, the engagement of
additional tactile channel completes the set of additive effects.
Figure 2. Tangible Multimedia: Cognitive-Friendly Multimedia for Preschoolers
As advantages of embracing tangible objects are abundant, a “new breed” of multimedia, that is a
multimedia augmented with tangible objects, is hereby proposed. As it capitalises on the
tangibility nature of physical objects, we propose to term it as “tangible multimedia”. As a newly
explored area, we have problem to determine the structure of a tangible multimedia system. We
are concerned about the way the tangible objects should be used, the criteria to qualify a system
as a tangible multimedia, and the relationship between tangible objects and multimedia objects.
Therefore, a relevant framework that outlines the basic structure of tangible multimedia is
conceived in the following section as grounding guidelines and reference.
2. PROPOSING THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR DEFINING TANGIBLE
MULTIMEDIA
Tangible multimedia is a genre of multimedia learning system that is augmented with tangible
objects for preschoolers.
Figure 3. Taxonomy of Tangible Multimedia
The framework for tangible multimedia proposes taxonomy of tangible multimedia is to be
defined as the combination of six multimedia objects, namely graphic, animation, text, audio,
video and tangible objects. Tangible object is delineated as an independent component of
multimedia objects. It serves as a means to manifest the sense of tangibility in multimedia useful
for preschool learning. Via tangible objects, multimedia objects are “externalised” from digital
world to physical space; thereby give young preschoolers a kind of illusion that they gain the
experience of “tangibility” in multimedia context.
4. The International Journal of Multimedia & Its Applications (IJMA) Vol.8, No.6, December 2016
14
Figure 4. Externalisation of Multimedia Objects via Tangible Objects
Digital multimedia should be well-integrated, and only displayed through a single computer
screen [35]. Conforming to this characteristic, our tangible multimedia framework proposes that
all components in tangible multimedia should also be delivered in a way that they are unified
meaningfully, and designed as an integrated entity whereby each of the multimedia objects is
treated equally important and complement each other in a concordant manner to realise the all-
around tangibility for preschoolers learning. If tangible objects are isolated from the whole
system, the research would likely turn out to be a TUI research [29][36], rather than research of
tangibility in multimedia context. The same manner is applied on the case study where the effects
on preschoolers would be attributed to the contribution of all the components in tangible
multimedia, not solely tactile component.
At the outset, tangible multimedia compliant with the proposed framework exposes limitations
that may affect its efficacy. One of the limitations is that tangible objects add complexity to the
system in the view of preschoolers. To overcome this limitation, we propose learning theories,
namely Constructivist and Cognitivist theories, and multimedia design principles, Mayer’s
cognitive theory of multimedia learning to be part of the framework (Figure 5).
Figure 5. Learning Theories and Multimedia Design as Part of the Framework
The adaptation of tangible objects into genuine multimedia learning for preschoolers remained
absent. Although there were abundant research works, such as Tangible User Interface [37] that
utilised tangible objects, they are not rightfully tangible multimedia because they deemphasise the
role of learning theories and multimedia design principles and loosely associate tangible objects
with digital multimedia objects. They even could discard the entire multimedia objects in their
system. Their target is more on how tangible objects can be utilised to facilitate human-computer
interaction [38][39]. For them, multimedia objects are purely testing elements deployed for
assessing the usability of tangible objects designated as a natural form of interaction interface.
3.CONTRIBUTING THEORIES FOR WMC TEST AND TANGIBLE MULTIMEDIA
To explore the potential of tangible multimedia, a case study had been conducted. During the
course of the case study, we encountered great difficulty in locating a testing instrument of
similar domain. Because of this, we designed a WM testing instrument called “objects-span tri-
tasks” test. This section provides succinct discussion on the underlying theories that form the
basis of the “objects-span tri-tasks” test and tangible multimedia.
5. The International Journal of Multimedia & Its Applications (IJMA) Vol.8, No.6, December 2016
15
3.1. ATKINSON AND SHIFFRIN’S HUMAN MEMORY THEORY (ASHM)
ASHM was the first theory to postulate the existence of tactile sensory channel in the process of
information acquisition. Accordingly, the information (stimuli inputs) is best learned if it is
registered in visual, auditory and haptic sensory stores simultaneously before they are passed onto
short-term store (STS), a pure temporary storage platform in human brain. Information in STS
will decay with time quickly [40][41], hence, a continuous rehearsal is required for it to be
transferred to long-term store (LTS) for permanent storage (Figure 6).
Figure 6. ASHM (Simplified And Adapted From [19] [41] )
Interaction between STS and LTS is bidirectional. During the period where information resides in
STS, relevant information in LTS will be activated, retrieved, and subsequently placed in STS.
ASHM’s account of STS and LTS does not require that the two stores must be in different parts
of the brain, or that they must involve different physiological structures [41].
3.2. KIERAS AND MEYER’S EXECUTIVE PROCESS-INTERACTIVE CONTROL
FRAMEWORK (EPIC)
EPIC is by far the most comprehensive WM model elaborated on tactile sensory channel in
human cognition. EPIC explicates that human cognitive structure consists of a central cognitive
processor (WM and long-term memory) surrounded by many peripheral perceptual processors
(visual, auditory, and tactile) and motor processors (vocal, manual and ocular-motor (eye)).
Figure 7. EPIC Framework (Adapted From [42])
The information processing starts from perceptual processors where the visual, auditory and
tactile processors accept information from sense organs (hand, eyes, vocal). The information is
then deposited into WM in cognitive processor. As a response to the receipt of information, WM
yields multiple commands to motor processors to trigger overt movement of relevant sense
organs. At the end of the process, the motor processors may generate feedback for WM.
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3.3. BADDELEY’S WORKING MEMORY THEORY (BWM)
BWM posits that WM is not only a brain system functions as a temporary memory storage, but
also a mental blackboard for information processing [43]. In other words, WM is a platform for
dual-functionality of cognitive processes, where information held in short-term memory is
operated and manipulated (processing function) simultaneously. Unlike ASHM and EPIC, BWM
does not perceive the tactile modality as sensory channels played role in information acquisition.
It asserts that humans only possess two distinct channels, phonological loop (represents verbal
information) and visuo-spatial sketchpad (represents pictorial and spatial information) that is
managed by a supervisory system named “central executive”. BWM tradition adopts the belief
that tactile stimuli are logged through the visual sensory channel [44].
Figure 8. Subcomponents of WM [43]
In BWM, WM and long-term memory (LTM) are structurally separated. However, similar to
ASHM, they are not perceived to be operated in isolation, but instead highly dependent on each
other. To account for processing large amounts of information, such as comprehending a
sentence, WM is extended to include LTM so that contextual knowledge can be retrieved to
process the pronouns and tenses learned previously in the sentence [45]. The idea of a close
relationship between WM and LTM has been substantiated by a number of research works.
Miyake and Shah [46] consider STM as a gateway to LTM. Cowan [47], Gathercole & Pickering
[7], and Kemps, Rammelaere, & Desmet [48] perceive WM as an activated portion of LTM.
Yuan and his associates [43] view LTM and external world as the sources of WM contents.
Ericsson & Kintsch [45] explicates that LTM holds unlimited knowledge and that it overcomes
the limitations of WM. In view of its importance, the engagement of LTM should not be
overlooked in the design of a WM test.
4. PROPOSING THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF WM AS BASIS FOR
RESEARCH MATERIALS
In this study, we adopt the integrated approach by unifying the three major theories discussed
above, and term it as “unified theory of WM” (Figure 9). Based on the theory, we designed
“objects-span tri-tasks” test and a prototype of tangible multimedia named TangiLearn.
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Figure 9. Unified Theory of WM (adapted from [19] [41][42][43])
In the unified theory of WM, we propose an architect of multiple components in WM in a manner
similar to that of the subcomponents in BWM’s tradition. WM in cognitive processors is
fractionated into various partitions catered for different types of information captured by different
sense organs. The information input to WM is most effective if it is contributed by three different
modalities (visual, auditory and tactile channels) in tandem.
Unifying different models is always an aim of science [48]. It provides a comprehensive picture
of WM of a person. It has been a common practice for many researchers in WM, such as Miyake
and Shah’s [46] synthesised description of multiple dimensional WM, and Oberauer, S¨uß,
Schulze, Wilhelm, & Wittmann’s [49] hierarchical model of synthesised WM [43].
We draw on ASHM and EPIC because of its postulation on tactile channel, which is relevant to
our case study. BWM is included in the unified theory because BWM not only receives wide
acceptance in the field of psychology research [5][50][43], but also provides a fitting framework
for second language learning [10], which is the investigated domain in the case study. BWM
stands as a common model used to understand word learning [52][53] and vocabulary [54].
It is possible to unify ASHM, BWM and EPIC theories because there is a strong correlation
between them. They represent a continuum of human memory research works that evolved over
the years. BWM and EPIC have its origin from ASHM. ASHM was the first theory that explicitly
rationalises the process of human memory in knowledge acquisition. By the early 1970s, ASHM
was found too simplistic [46], and incapable of adequately explaining the underlying semantic
processing underwent in a learner’s mind [56][46], thus Baddeley enhanced ASHM by proposing
the term WM to replace the term STS [57]. BWM spurs extremely large number of models that
followed [58], including EPIC framework. The three theories unified have much to offer to each
other, and to complement each other. As each human memory theory has a certain level of
evolution from the past theories, a continuum of the three compelling theories can be illustrated in
Figure 10.
Figure 10. Continuum of ASHM, BWM and EPIC Human Memory Theories
This continuum of theories implies that one can select one single theory, combine all theories, or
taking the middle of the continuum of theories and apply whenever situation appropriate.
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5. CASE STUDY
A seven-day case study for testing the WMC of preschoolers after treatment using TangiLearn
had been conducted in seven kindergartens. Each lesson lasted one hour per day, for seven days
consecutively in each kindergarten.
5.1. RESEARCH QUESTIONS OF CASE STUDY
The study sought to answer the question: Do preschoolers of the TangiLearn system demonstrate
an improvement in their learning performance and WMC in English as second lang uage (ESL)
learning?
5.2. OBJECTIVE OF THE CASE STUDY
The primary objectives of the case study were to first, measure the feasibility and capability of
tangible multimedia in supporting ESL learning and WMC of a preschooler. Second, gather
feedback regarding the design and procedure for “objects-span tri-tasks” test as well as the
improvements required for them.
5.3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The research framework postulated one independent variable attempted to impose effect on two
dependent variables. The independent variable was the multimedia learning system, TangiLearn.
This independent variable was expected to show a significant variance on the dependent
variables. The dependent variables were learning performance score and WMC. As this case
study served as the preliminary step from a series of evaluation plan, we did not include control
group for comparison.
Figure 11. Research Methodology for the Case Study
Albert Shanker Institute [59] defines a quality preschool instruction as an instruction that impose
vital and lasting effects on building children’s cognitive skills. By setting the learning
performance and WMC scores as dependent variable, the real quality of multimedia system can
be gauged, that is whether the TangiLearn was able to maximise learning performance and yet
can lessen the amount of WM load of a preschooler at the same time.
We deployed quizzes (pre and post-quiz) and “objects-span tri-tasks” test as metrics for
measuring the preschoolers’ learning performance and WMC respectively (Figure 12). Both pre-
quiz and post-quiz were composed of 12 questions. Pre-quiz was a measure of the prior
knowledge of preschoolers on contents to be learned. It was held 7 days prior to the conduct of
the study to obtain a baseline performance for comparison with results from the post-quiz. The
aim of post-quiz was to assess the preschoolers’ knowledge gained after the system treatment.
The pre-quiz and post-quiz were similar in some contents, but were arranged in a randomised
order to avoid the “set response effect”. Some were modified but the contents remained the same.
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Apart from that, unstructured observations and interviews, which offer us key insights into issues
not obviously attested in quantitative results, were further utilised to collect feedback from
participants.
Figure 12. Case Study Research Design
5.4. THE PARTICIPANTS
248 preschoolers (121 males and 127 females) age five and six from seven Malaysian
kindergartens were selected as the participants in the case study. The participants chosen were
homogeneous in terms of age, prior knowledge, and English level. They did not speak, or rarely
spoke English at home. The participants must not have attended any lesson on the topics covered
by the treatment system, for us to attribute their knowledge to the efficacy of the system they
used. The decision to select five and six year old children was justified by the fact that this is the
time when most Malaysian children officially start learning ESL in kindergartens [60]. In
addition, they are categorised as children in the stage of “pre-operation” cognitive development.
Preschoolers took part in this study voluntarily. They were not told about the nature of the study.
However, they were told that they could stop learning Tangilearn at any time.
5.5. THE DESIGN OF “OBJECTS-SPAN TRI-TASKS” TEST
“Objects-span tri-tasks” test is a memory tasks test designed to measure the WMC of a
preschooler undergone treatment using TangiLearn. The basic idea of the test is the simultaneous
reproduction of the words and sequence of the words learned in the TangiLearn. Such
reproduction translates dual-functionality of WM, simultaneous storage and processing of
information into testing instrument. The preschoolers’ WMC is the size of the largest sequence of
correctly spelled words able to be recalled by the preschoolers.
During the case study, the “objects-span tri-tasks” test started when a preschooler was
sequentially presented with 3 words with which each was printed on different cards. 3 letters in
each word were left blank.
Figure 13. Three Letters Left Blank in Words in “Objects-Span Tri-Tasks” Test
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Each word would be remained for viewing for 15 seconds, followed by a one-second inter-
stimulus-interval (ISI). We started from 3 words because the past research shows that 4 to 6 years
old children could repeat sequences of digits from 3 to 4 digits [61]. After the presentation of the
words, the preschooler was requested to write down the words in full and in the right order on
answer sheet.
Figure 14. The “Objects-span Tri-tasks” test
As observed, the preschoolers were to perform three tasks in this test. A triple task paradigm is a
logical extension of dual task performance [62]. Triple tasks performance investigated by
McColskey [62], Stager & Laabs [63], and Wickens [64], though in different domain,
demonstrate the possibility of carrying out triple tasks paradigm in a WM testing instrument. The
first task in “objects-span tri-tasks”, recall the words presented, suggests the use of short-term
storage function of WM because information storage is measured through forgetting [56][57].
The second task, recall the order of the sequence of words, implicates the processing function of
WM. Although tasks requiring sequence recall is not always necessary for cognition operation, it
is crucial for many acts of higher order cognition such as language acquisition and navigating
routes which require memorising a series of turns and locations [65][66]. This is because
memorising a sequential order of events entails strategy uses and efforts [67][65]. The third task,
recall the 3 letters left blank in a word, was alluded to the engagement of LTM.
Figure 15. Three Tasks in Human Cognition Triggered Using the “Objects-Span Tri-Tasks” Test
The presentation time for viewing was limited, but the time for writing the answer was not. This
was because firstly, the mastery of vocabulary was limited among preschoolers. Secondly,
flexibility in writing time would help to reduce stress that may occur among the preschoolers. If
the words, their sequence, and missing letters were recalled correctly, the preschooler would
proceed to next level. The sequence length of the words would be progressively increased by one
in each subsequent level. The test would be discontinued if the preschooler has committed three
full consecutive incorrect words, sequences or missing letter recalls. Two levels of test would be
conducted as practice trials. The total administration time required was between 15 and 20
minutes for each participant, including practice trial. Three types of scores, namely, the score for
correctly arranged sequence of words, the score for words correctly recalled, and the score for
missing letters recalled, would be obtained. Each correct recall would be awarded 1 mark.
Preschoolers’ total score on these three tasks were the measures of their WMC. This way of
calculating had the advantage of obtaining individual scores from single items.
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The tasks in “objects-span tri-tasks” was set by reference to the “backward digit” [68][49],
“backward word” [69][43], “mathematics-span dual-tasks”, and “reading-span dual-tasks” [70]
span test. The difference of these instruments lies in the contents of the task and the way the task
is processed. For “backward digit” and “backward word” span test, the processing task is the
recitation of the order of the numbers and words respectively. The processing task in
“mathematics-span dual-tasks” is to choose two numbers with which the total could be divided by
three and “reading-span dual-tasks” is to read aloud a set of sentences apart from the recitation of
the last word in the sentences as the memory task. Besides contents, another difference between
“objects-span tri-tasks” test and these tests is the overt setting of tasks that reflects the
engagement of LTM in supporting the operation of WM (Figure 15).
Dual-tasks have become a standard for measuring WM. A memory test that invokes dual-tasks is
not only a valid measure of WM [71][43][72][73][49], but also a good predictor for higher order
cognitive skills [74]. Simple memory tests such as “backward digit” and “backward word” span
tests are not a good measurement for WM [74][2] because they merely require the participants to
conserve information given. Direct conservation of information only taps the storage functionality
of WM [47].
5.6. THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE TANGILEARN
Sensor technology which comprises RFID readers, spatial sensors, touch sensors, and electronic
sliders was deployed interchangeably to implement the tactile attribute in multimedia.
Figure 16. Sensor Devices Deployed in Tangilearn
The setting of TangiLearn was done in a way that an array of tangible objects was arranged on
the display table in front of computer. Adopting the approach of self-explorative learning in the
Constructivist theories, participants were requested to identify, pick, and play around freely with
any tangible object to trigger the corresponding virtual learning contents in animations and videos
on the computer screen when the study started for 30 minutes. The full learning sessions were
concluded with a post-quiz and an “objects-span tri-tasks” test.
The learning contents of TangiLearn system were designed to focus on the learning of real-life
objects in ESL, compliant with the National Preschool Curriculum (NPC) of Malaysia. NPC
emphasises the mastery of language skills for preschoolers [75]. Topics of real-life objects were
limited to animals, fruits, and stationery. Mastering the name and relevant key terms of the
objects was the main objective of TangiLearn. Animals and fruits were chosen in this case study
because the study of animals and plantations are subjects learned in the lowest grades in
kindergartens [76]. Stationery was chosen because there have been views that items (school bus,
school items etc.) within a 15-minute walk from the children’s school can be an important source
for teachers in selecting subjects for learning [77]. Bruner [78] further elaborates that the more
basic the idea the students have learned, the greater their ability in applying it to new problems
[79]. In view of this, the three topics chosen were highly suitable for the study. No abstract
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materials or concepts like “melt”, “minus”, “think” or grammar of the language were introduced,
consistent with the level of cognitive development of young children [15].
To identify tangible objects, the TangiLearn system was designed in a way that RFID tag was
inserted into tangible object (Figure 17). By moving the tangible object towards a compatible
RFID reader, the tag would transmit relevant information to the reader, and thereby triggered
mutual communication between multimedia expressions and tangible objects for learning.
Figure 17. Implementation of RFID Technology
In fruits learning session where tangible apple was attached on the handle of an electronic slider.
The electronic slider, a linear potentiometer with its sensor value varied linearly with the position
of the slider, was used as position feedback for the position of the tangible apple. By grasping and
moving the slider embedded tangible apple from left to right, the virtual apple would be moved
accordingly (Figure 18), and this triggered a sense of spatiality in the mind of preschoolers. Based
on the unified theory of WM, this way of learning was believed to be more comprehensive than
plain pictures, because an image of an apple, though recognisable, has no substantial spatial
organisation [80].
Figure 18. Electronic Slider Attached on Tangible Apple in Apple Catching Game
In cooking and sewing learning sessions, we set the mastery of the name of the tangible objects
involved, when and how they were used as the main learning outcomes. For instance, when “add
sauce” text was shown on computer screen (Figure 19a), the preschooler would be requested to
grab the RFID embedded tangible sauce. If the preschooler grabbed the object correctly, the
virtual sauce would be slowly moved towards the virtual wok (Figure 19b). Otherwise, an error
notification would be displayed.
Figure 19a. Cooking Session Figure 19b. Moving Virtual Sauce
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The subsequent step for the preschooler was to experience spatial activity using spatula. After all
“ingredients” were “poured” into the virtual wok, a virtual spatula would be shown (Figure 20a).
This implied that the preschooler needed to pick the spatial sensor embedded tangible spatula, and
performed gestural movement to trigger a simulation of the stirring action.
Figure 20a. Moving Spatula Figure 20b. Stirring Spatula
5.7. THE FINDINGS
The post-quiz results show that the participants successfully learned the contents associated with
tangible objects from the system. Out of 12 questions, 82 participants obtained more than 75% of
marks (distinction) in post-quiz after treatment using TangiLearn.
Table 1. Participants’ Performance in Quizzes.
From the WMC test, the preschoolers gained a mean score of 5.83 in Task 1, 4.17 in Task 2, and
3.67 in Task 3. None of the participants was able to advance beyond the fourth level (Table 2).
Table 2. Participants’ WM Score in “Objects-span Tri-tasks” Test.
Due to the lack of research works in the adoption of tangibility in multimedia, we are unable to
examine any existing mean of score as a baseline measurement of the preschooler’s WMC for
reference. To gauge the status of our findings in WMC, we referred mean of scores in some of the
well-established WM test, though the way they conducted the WM was different. Compared with
the mean score of backward digit span (4.87), reading span (3.70), math span (5.39), verbal span
(3.63) and computation span (5.25) in the past research works [49], the “objects-span tri-tasks”
results provided an idea of the performance of WMC of TangiLearn participants.
The satisfactory performance of quiz and memory tests was believed to be attributed to the
physical sensation of tangible objects. We noticed that the participants were highly motivated by
TangiLearn. Their emotional and facial expressions indicated that they explored the system
excitedly. They liked holding and tinkering with the tangible objects augmented with sensors.
When we asked what they liked most about the system, majority of them answered that what they
liked most was the part where tangible objects, particularly toy-like objects, were bound up with
digital multimedia expressions. They seemed to be tricked into the belief that the digital
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multimedia objects had been made “graspable” for them. To them, TangiLearn was
“technologically” simple (allowed them to understand the tasks easily) and novel (they have not
seen such tangible system before).
Unlike majority of the commercial multimedia systems in market that deliver rote contexts, such
as where their screens are filled with menus and buttons written with school terminologies
(exercises, examples, and vocabulary), the meaningful context augmented with authentic tangible
objects in TangiLearn delivered knowledge that was associated with learners’ prior knowledge.
For example, in animals learning session, the National Zoo in Kuala Lumpur was set as
background. In zoo, the learners have already known some animals, and from what they already
knew, TangiLearn system introduced more new animals. With the connection to known animals,
new animals were learned easier and faster. Children learn best when learning materials are
presented in meaningful contexts [59][83]. Tangible objects themselves are real-world concrete
materials. The strength of its physical affordances allowed the situation of “decontextualised”
learning [84] to be avoided. If knowledge taught is separated from how and what the young
children see in real life, unnecessary cognitive load will be incurred as they will wonder whether
such things exist in the reality. According to Alessi and Trollip [82], a heavy cognitive load will
have adverse effects on learners’ motivation and transfer of learning [76].
The case study also observed flaws in the WM test and some refinements were required. During
the course of the “objects-span tri-tasks” test, it was found that all participants were unable to
advance beyond the fourth level. We suspect that the starting sequence length and number of
missing letters in the test were set beyond the capability of preschoolers in Malaysia, despite past
surveys in other countries that confirmed the setting to be appropriate [61]. To ensure accuracy of
research outcomes, memory span tests should start with an easy load of information which the
preschoolers must repeat [81], thus we are considering to alter the viewing time for each sequence
of words from 15 to 30 seconds. By giving a longer time for viewing, it is expected that the WMC
of the participants can be more accurately reflected. The second alteration is on the number of
topics covered. It was found that the scope of topics covered was broad for the young participants
to cope with. The third is the reduction of the syllable of each word recalled. This is because
lengthy syllables may demand the involvement of other components of WM. Fourth, some of the
preschoolers had problems in writing due to their limited vocabulary mastery. Therefore, instead
of asking them to write the answer on the answer sheet, using answer options printed on cards for
the young participants to point to is more plausible. Fifth, observation revealed that the
preschoolers are capable of handling many tests, as such, we plan to conduct “objects-span tri-
tasks” twice, that is, before and after treatment. Lastly, there was a suggestion from a teacher that
tangible objects should be used instead of text printed on cards for viewing during the WM test.
This suggestion is of valuable for consideration in view that it could more accurately reflect the
aim of study.
7. CONCLUSION
This case study is an attempt to examine the potential of tangible multimedia to orient
preschoolers toward ESL learning that will be much different from the past multimedia. The
findings reveal that TangiLearn, which was designed in and based on unified theories of WM,
appears to have positively impacted children‘s ESL acquisition and WMC. A conclusion that can
be drawn from the findings is that multimedia that was translated from the unified theories of
WM helps establish not only the intuitiveness elements in digital multimedia learning for
preschoolers, but also a means for upholding a preschooler’s WMC.
We believe this paper moves beyond many of the research questions commonly done in
multimedia realm in four aspects. First, this paper sheds light on the fact that multimedia research
in terms of the aspect of WM of learners, which is understudied, is an area that can be further
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researched. “Objects-span tri-tasks” memory test, which closely mirrors the dual-tasks
methodology, has been designed for measuring the WM of preschoolers in multimedia learning.
Secondly, this paper attempts to unify the three compelling WM theories (BWM, ASHM, and
EPIC framework). Our study shows that their dimensions could interact to produce some insights
into WM in the multimedia context. We argue that our tangible multimedia system and WM test
have strong theoretical base because they are designed based on the unified theory of WM, the
tripartite theory formulated from the three aforesaid theories. Thirdly, this paper demonstrates an
important step forward in multimedia research by proposing a genre of multimedia that manifests
the tactile attribute for learning. Despite some inherent drawbacks in the procedure of the case
study, the preliminary findings are of considerable value, and have practical implications on the
use of the system. Finally, our study illustrates a cross-disciplinary investigation across three
distinct domains, from computing domain (multimedia), cognitive psychology (WM) to applied
linguistics (ESL). The success of such a study will add value to the innovative approach design in
multimedia settings.
On the whole, the findings of this case study have provided initial views that TangiLearn is
educationally valuable and cognitive-friendly to preschoolers. Tangible multimedia and WM test
are in the initial stage of research, and their designs are still in the beta version. We hope to
encourage and invite more relevant research to substantiate or repudiate the preliminary
conclusions drawn in this study.
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AUTHORS
Zarina Samsudin is an Associate Professor of Centre for Instructional Technology and
Multimedia (CITM) in Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM). She obtained her Doctor of
Education (Ed.D) i n Computers in Education from University of Minnesota, U.S.A. Her
research interests are in the area of instructional technology, issues and copyright in
multimedia, and multimedia project management.
Wan Ahmad Jaafar Wan Yahaya is an Associate Professor and Director of CITM, USM.
He holds a Ph.D. degree in Educational Multimedia from the University of Leeds, UK and
M.Ed in Computer in Education from the University of Manchester, UK. Currently, he is
teaching graduate and und ergraduate students in Instructional Multimedia and Persuasive
Technology. Dr. Jaafar is a consultant of several projects in the multinational companies as
well as many private colleges. He is also involved in the study of ICT initiatives in Malaysian schools as
well as in Cambodia. His project entitled “Managing Children Dental Anxiety Through Digital Persuader”
won the gold award and special award in the Malaysia Technology Expo (MTE 2012). Another project
entitled “Persuasive Multimedia Learning Environment (PMLE)” also won the Gold Award in the 20th
International Invention, Innovation, Industrial Design & Technology Exhibition 2009 (ITEX09)
competition. He also won a bronze medal in Seoul International Invention Fair (SIIF) 2010 and in the 23rd
20th International Invention, Innovation, Industrial Design & Technology Exhibition 2012 (ITEX12)
competition. He is currently applying for patent to commercialise the product.
Chau Kien Tsong is an assistant professor of Faculty of Art and Design in Southern
University College. He obtained his Ph.D. in multimedia from USM. His research interests
are in the area of multimedia and 3D animation.