This document summarizes a chapter about genes, genetically modified foods, biotechnology, gene therapy, cloning, DNA fingerprinting, cell division, cancer, and more. It discusses how genetically modified crops can help farmers through insect and herbicide resistance. It also addresses fears about genetically modified foods and their safety. The uses of biotechnology to treat diseases like diabetes and produce medicines like insulin are covered. Challenges with gene therapy and the promises and perils of cloning are summarized. Mitosis, meiosis, cell replication, and how cancer arises from uncontrolled cell growth are also briefly discussed.
This document summarizes the key genetic factors involved in Alzheimer's disease. It discusses the two main types of AD - early onset and late onset. For early onset AD, mutations on chromosomes 1, 14, and 21 can cause abnormal protein formation and amyloid plaque buildup. The APOE e4 gene is a major genetic risk factor for late onset AD. Testing for APOE alleles and other genetic risk factors can provide information for research but not definitively predict an individual's risk of developing AD. A thorough diagnostic evaluation includes medical tests, cognitive assessments, and input from family and friends.
This document discusses the genetics of Alzheimer's disease. It describes 3 types of Alzheimer's disease based on age of onset and cause: dominantly inherited early-onset AD caused by genetic mutations; early-onset AD of complex inheritance from genetic and environmental factors; and late-onset AD also from genetic and environmental factors. Several genes have been identified that influence risk for late-onset AD including APOE, CLU, PICALM, and others identified through genome-wide association studies. Sequencing studies of early-onset AD aim to find stronger genetic risk factors. While individual genetic variants have subtle effects, together they help explain pathways involved in Alzheimer's disease.
Mutations in genes that regulate the cell cycle, such as proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes, can lead to cancer if they cause cells to continuously divide. Multiple mutations are often required for cancer to develop, including mutations that allow uncontrolled growth and inhibit anchorage dependence. Cancer progresses as mutations accumulate, first forming benign tumors that could develop into malignant tumors if additional mutations occur, allowing invasion of other tissues and organs.
This document discusses the increasing use of genetics in clinical medicine. It covers topics like germline alterations, genetic susceptibility to common diseases, the role of primary care physicians in genetics, and advances in genetic testing techniques. The importance of understanding a patient's family history and genetic risks is emphasized. Different patterns of genetic inheritance for various conditions are reviewed, along with examples of monogenic disorders and cancer syndromes. Emerging areas like pharmacogenomics and personalized medicine are also mentioned.
This document discusses genetics research on Alzheimer's disease. It covers several key points:
- Three genes - PSEN1, PSEN2, and APP - are responsible for early-onset Alzheimer's disease in rare familial cases. PSEN1 mutations account for the most cases.
- ApoE4 is the strongest genetic risk factor for the more common late-onset Alzheimer's disease. Carriage of one or two ApoE4 alleles increases risk and decreases amyloid clearance.
- Genome-wide association studies have identified new genetic loci associated with Alzheimer's risk, including Clusterin and PICALM, though Alzheimer's has a complex genetic architecture.
- Ongoing research aims to discover biomarkers, through
This document summarizes the genetics of Alzheimer's disease. It discusses that early-onset Alzheimer's (before age 60) is associated with genetic mutations in genes like PSEN1, PSEN2, and APP. It is inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern. Late-onset Alzheimer's (after age 65) has a strong genetic predisposition but the genes are not well defined. The ApoE gene is associated with risk, with the E4 variant conferring the highest risk and E2 being protective. However, ApoE only explains a small portion of Alzheimer's cases.
This document provides an overview of genetics and genetic abnormalities relevant to hematology. It begins with definitions of key genetic terms. It then discusses chromosomal abnormalities associated with hematological conditions like hemoglobinopathies, leukemias, and bleeding disorders. Specific examples of genetic abnormalities are described, such as translocations in CML and AML. The document outlines various genetic tests used in hematology and stresses the importance of genetic studies in disease classification and management. It emphasizes the role of genetics in understanding inherited hematological diseases.
Genetics of cancer can involve mutations in three classes of genes: proto-oncogenes that become activated oncogenes and promote uncontrolled growth; tumor suppressor genes like RB and p53 that normally inhibit cell growth but are inactivated by mutations; and mutator genes involved in DNA repair that increase mutation rates when defective. The two-hit model of cancer explains that mutations in both copies of tumor suppressor genes are required for tumor formation.
This document summarizes the key genetic factors involved in Alzheimer's disease. It discusses the two main types of AD - early onset and late onset. For early onset AD, mutations on chromosomes 1, 14, and 21 can cause abnormal protein formation and amyloid plaque buildup. The APOE e4 gene is a major genetic risk factor for late onset AD. Testing for APOE alleles and other genetic risk factors can provide information for research but not definitively predict an individual's risk of developing AD. A thorough diagnostic evaluation includes medical tests, cognitive assessments, and input from family and friends.
This document discusses the genetics of Alzheimer's disease. It describes 3 types of Alzheimer's disease based on age of onset and cause: dominantly inherited early-onset AD caused by genetic mutations; early-onset AD of complex inheritance from genetic and environmental factors; and late-onset AD also from genetic and environmental factors. Several genes have been identified that influence risk for late-onset AD including APOE, CLU, PICALM, and others identified through genome-wide association studies. Sequencing studies of early-onset AD aim to find stronger genetic risk factors. While individual genetic variants have subtle effects, together they help explain pathways involved in Alzheimer's disease.
Mutations in genes that regulate the cell cycle, such as proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes, can lead to cancer if they cause cells to continuously divide. Multiple mutations are often required for cancer to develop, including mutations that allow uncontrolled growth and inhibit anchorage dependence. Cancer progresses as mutations accumulate, first forming benign tumors that could develop into malignant tumors if additional mutations occur, allowing invasion of other tissues and organs.
This document discusses the increasing use of genetics in clinical medicine. It covers topics like germline alterations, genetic susceptibility to common diseases, the role of primary care physicians in genetics, and advances in genetic testing techniques. The importance of understanding a patient's family history and genetic risks is emphasized. Different patterns of genetic inheritance for various conditions are reviewed, along with examples of monogenic disorders and cancer syndromes. Emerging areas like pharmacogenomics and personalized medicine are also mentioned.
This document discusses genetics research on Alzheimer's disease. It covers several key points:
- Three genes - PSEN1, PSEN2, and APP - are responsible for early-onset Alzheimer's disease in rare familial cases. PSEN1 mutations account for the most cases.
- ApoE4 is the strongest genetic risk factor for the more common late-onset Alzheimer's disease. Carriage of one or two ApoE4 alleles increases risk and decreases amyloid clearance.
- Genome-wide association studies have identified new genetic loci associated with Alzheimer's risk, including Clusterin and PICALM, though Alzheimer's has a complex genetic architecture.
- Ongoing research aims to discover biomarkers, through
This document summarizes the genetics of Alzheimer's disease. It discusses that early-onset Alzheimer's (before age 60) is associated with genetic mutations in genes like PSEN1, PSEN2, and APP. It is inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern. Late-onset Alzheimer's (after age 65) has a strong genetic predisposition but the genes are not well defined. The ApoE gene is associated with risk, with the E4 variant conferring the highest risk and E2 being protective. However, ApoE only explains a small portion of Alzheimer's cases.
This document provides an overview of genetics and genetic abnormalities relevant to hematology. It begins with definitions of key genetic terms. It then discusses chromosomal abnormalities associated with hematological conditions like hemoglobinopathies, leukemias, and bleeding disorders. Specific examples of genetic abnormalities are described, such as translocations in CML and AML. The document outlines various genetic tests used in hematology and stresses the importance of genetic studies in disease classification and management. It emphasizes the role of genetics in understanding inherited hematological diseases.
Genetics of cancer can involve mutations in three classes of genes: proto-oncogenes that become activated oncogenes and promote uncontrolled growth; tumor suppressor genes like RB and p53 that normally inhibit cell growth but are inactivated by mutations; and mutator genes involved in DNA repair that increase mutation rates when defective. The two-hit model of cancer explains that mutations in both copies of tumor suppressor genes are required for tumor formation.
Stem cell therapy involves using stem cells to treat diseases. There are two main types of stem cells - embryonic stem cells which are pluripotent and derived from embryos, and adult stem cells which are multipotent and found in tissues. Stem cell therapy shows promise for treating conditions like leukemia, neurodegenerative diseases, brain/spinal cord injuries, heart disease, blindness, diabetes, and more. Gene therapy aims to treat genetic disorders by inserting, altering or removing genes to correct defective genes. It involves approaches like replacing an abnormal gene with a normal gene through gene transfer methods using physical, chemical or biological vectors like retroviruses.
Gene therapy involves inserting genes into cells to treat disease, while stem cell therapy uses stem cells that can differentiate into other cell types. There are two types of gene therapy: germline modifies sperm or eggs and changes are inheritable, while somatic modifies patient's somatic cells and changes are not inheritable. Stem cell therapy currently uses adult stem cells from bone marrow or blood to treat cancers and blood disorders, and may potentially treat many other conditions. Both therapies aim to cure genetic disorders but also face scientific, ethical, and financial challenges.
The document summarizes a genetics course taught by Dr. Ahmed Elshebiny. The course covers basic principles of medical genetics including the structure of DNA and chromosomes. It examines the genetic basis of various diseases and inheritance patterns. The course also explores applications of genetics in clinical practice such as genetic testing and gene therapy.
The document discusses genetics and genetic disorders. It provides background on chromosomes, genes, Gregor Mendel's foundational work in genetics, DNA structure, mRNA, tRNA, amino acids, and the genetic code. It also covers topics like genetic engineering, gene therapy, and molecular techniques used to study human diseases.
Lecture 9 (biol3600) genetics of cancer, population geneticsPaula Faria Waziry
Williams syndrome is a genetic disorder caused by a microdeletion on chromosome 7, characterized by medical problems, mild to moderate intellectual disability, and a highly social personality. It results in cardiovascular disease, developmental delays, and cognitive or learning disabilities. Individuals with Williams syndrome have an unusual verbal ability and high levels of empathy but low spatial skills.
Genetic Insights Into Multiple Sclerosis PathogenesisAaron Sparshott
A segment of a group presentation reflecting upon some of the genetic components that may contribute to Multiple Sclerosis pathogenesis.
IL2Rα and IL7Rα were the two genes of focus.
(This presentation was originally done for Semester 2 , 2008)
This document summarizes the process and findings of candidate gene and genome-wide association studies for autoimmune diseases like systemic lupus erythematosus. It discusses how initial studies identified a few candidate genes but genome-wide association studies since 2006 have identified over 30 associated genes. However, these genes only account for a small portion of hereditary risk. Future studies with larger sample sizes are needed to identify additional risk variants, including rare variants, and determine their functional consequences to better understand disease mechanisms. International collaborations can help expand sample sizes for further studies.
Genetic variation occurs both within and among populations and is brought about by mutation, recombination, migration, and genetic drift. There are four main types of genetic variation: mutation, genetic recombination, migration, and genetic drift. Genetic variation is important as it allows individuals and populations to adapt to their environments. It plays a key role in health and pharmacology, for example in gene therapy which aims to treat diseases by replacing, inactivating, or introducing new genes.
This document discusses aging and the aging kidney. It begins by outlining the epidemiology and theories of aging, including how aging is a cumulative process influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. It then examines age-related changes in the kidney, including morphological changes like glomerulosclerosis, interstitial fibrosis, and vascular sclerosis. These changes are thought to be caused by factors like telomere shortening, oxidative stress, inflammation, and accumulation of advanced glycation end products over time. Managing these age-related changes and underlying disease processes is an important part of caring for the growing elderly population.
Genetic disorders and practical application of genetics in nursingArifa T N
This document discusses Down syndrome, which is caused by trisomy 21 resulting in an extra copy of chromosome 21. It presents in 1 in 800-1000 births and risk increases with maternal age. Clinical features include intellectual disability, flat facial features, congenital heart defects, and other physical signs. Management involves genetic counseling of parents on the condition, recurrence risks, and options for antenatal testing and diagnosis. Down syndrome results in lifelong intellectual and developmental disability and medical issues, though early support services can help maximize quality of life.
Biology - Chp 14 - Human Heredity - PowerPointMr. Walajtys
1. The human genome project mapped the entire human genome and found it contains around 31,000 genes, fewer than organisms like fruit flies and roundworms.
2. Human traits are determined by single genes, but most are influenced by multiple genes and the environment. Scientists use tools like pedigrees and karyotypes to study inheritance of traits.
3. Examples of genetic disorders caused by single gene mutations include cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, Tay-Sachs disease, and phenylketonuria (PKU).
Learning and understanding the correlation between telomere shortening and disease is the most important principal to stop the aging process. Dr Sears is one of the worlds most respected and renown Anti-Aging physicians in the world. Please visit our website at www.alsearsmd.com or www.searwellnesscenter.com for tons of great free information.
The Amerithrax investigation followed the 2001 anthrax attacks that killed 5 people. Letters containing anthrax spores were sent to media outlets and two senators. The FBI investigation into the source of the anthrax took 7 years.
Mutations are changes in DNA sequences that are present in less than 1% of a population. Mutations can range from single DNA base changes to missing or extra chromosomes. They can affect protein function and transcription. Most mutations are recessive and cause loss of function, while gain-of-function mutations tend to be dominant.
Sickle cell disease was the first genetic illness understood at the molecular level. It results from a single amino acid substitution in the beta globin protein that causes
Telomeres are repetitive DNA sequences that cap the ends of chromosomes and protect them from deterioration. They naturally shorten each time a cell divides until a limit is reached, known as the Hayflick limit, after which the cell stops dividing or dies. Telomerase is an enzyme that can lengthen telomeres and counteract their shortening, allowing cells to divide indefinitely. Telomere length is correlated with aging, with shorter telomeres associated with increased risk of age-related diseases. Factors like smoking, obesity, stress and inflammation can accelerate telomere shortening while healthy behaviors like exercise and nutrition may help maintain telomere length and slow aging.
The document discusses several key concepts relating to cancer biology and the hallmarks of cancer. It describes the evolutionary process of tumor development and lists some of the important hallmarks identified by Hanahan and Weinberg, including sustaining proliferative signaling, evading growth suppressors, resisting cell death, enabling replicative immortality, inducing angiogenesis, and activating invasion and metastasis. It also mentions several genetic mutations that have been identified in cancers like glioblastomas and lung adenocarcinomas.
Cancer cells exhibit several key characteristics: abnormal nuclei, increased vascularization to supply nutrients, disorganized and uncontrolled growth (anaplasia), and a lack of contact inhibition allowing unchecked growth. Carcinogenesis, or the development of cancer, occurs in stages - beginning with anaplasia, then tumor development, vascularization, and potentially metastasis where cancer cells spread to other sites. Oncogenes can develop from proto-oncogenes due to mutations from initiators like toxins or viruses, and promoters further stimulate abnormal cell growth. Viruses may incorporate oncogenes into host cell DNA, disrupting genes and potentially causing cancer.
The document discusses quantifying changes in hemolymph glucose concentration in crayfish in response to different environmental conditions. It provides background on glucose regulation and production of crustacean hyperglycemic hormone in crayfish. The experiment aims to measure changes in crayfish hemolymph glucose levels when exposed to variations in temperature, salinity, and stress by taking hemolymph samples before and after applying each treatment and comparing glucose concentrations. Safety is emphasized when handling crayfish and needles.
Stem cell therapy involves using stem cells to treat diseases. There are two main types of stem cells - embryonic stem cells which are pluripotent and derived from embryos, and adult stem cells which are multipotent and found in tissues. Stem cell therapy shows promise for treating conditions like leukemia, neurodegenerative diseases, brain/spinal cord injuries, heart disease, blindness, diabetes, and more. Gene therapy aims to treat genetic disorders by inserting, altering or removing genes to correct defective genes. It involves approaches like replacing an abnormal gene with a normal gene through gene transfer methods using physical, chemical or biological vectors like retroviruses.
Gene therapy involves inserting genes into cells to treat disease, while stem cell therapy uses stem cells that can differentiate into other cell types. There are two types of gene therapy: germline modifies sperm or eggs and changes are inheritable, while somatic modifies patient's somatic cells and changes are not inheritable. Stem cell therapy currently uses adult stem cells from bone marrow or blood to treat cancers and blood disorders, and may potentially treat many other conditions. Both therapies aim to cure genetic disorders but also face scientific, ethical, and financial challenges.
The document summarizes a genetics course taught by Dr. Ahmed Elshebiny. The course covers basic principles of medical genetics including the structure of DNA and chromosomes. It examines the genetic basis of various diseases and inheritance patterns. The course also explores applications of genetics in clinical practice such as genetic testing and gene therapy.
The document discusses genetics and genetic disorders. It provides background on chromosomes, genes, Gregor Mendel's foundational work in genetics, DNA structure, mRNA, tRNA, amino acids, and the genetic code. It also covers topics like genetic engineering, gene therapy, and molecular techniques used to study human diseases.
Lecture 9 (biol3600) genetics of cancer, population geneticsPaula Faria Waziry
Williams syndrome is a genetic disorder caused by a microdeletion on chromosome 7, characterized by medical problems, mild to moderate intellectual disability, and a highly social personality. It results in cardiovascular disease, developmental delays, and cognitive or learning disabilities. Individuals with Williams syndrome have an unusual verbal ability and high levels of empathy but low spatial skills.
Genetic Insights Into Multiple Sclerosis PathogenesisAaron Sparshott
A segment of a group presentation reflecting upon some of the genetic components that may contribute to Multiple Sclerosis pathogenesis.
IL2Rα and IL7Rα were the two genes of focus.
(This presentation was originally done for Semester 2 , 2008)
This document summarizes the process and findings of candidate gene and genome-wide association studies for autoimmune diseases like systemic lupus erythematosus. It discusses how initial studies identified a few candidate genes but genome-wide association studies since 2006 have identified over 30 associated genes. However, these genes only account for a small portion of hereditary risk. Future studies with larger sample sizes are needed to identify additional risk variants, including rare variants, and determine their functional consequences to better understand disease mechanisms. International collaborations can help expand sample sizes for further studies.
Genetic variation occurs both within and among populations and is brought about by mutation, recombination, migration, and genetic drift. There are four main types of genetic variation: mutation, genetic recombination, migration, and genetic drift. Genetic variation is important as it allows individuals and populations to adapt to their environments. It plays a key role in health and pharmacology, for example in gene therapy which aims to treat diseases by replacing, inactivating, or introducing new genes.
This document discusses aging and the aging kidney. It begins by outlining the epidemiology and theories of aging, including how aging is a cumulative process influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. It then examines age-related changes in the kidney, including morphological changes like glomerulosclerosis, interstitial fibrosis, and vascular sclerosis. These changes are thought to be caused by factors like telomere shortening, oxidative stress, inflammation, and accumulation of advanced glycation end products over time. Managing these age-related changes and underlying disease processes is an important part of caring for the growing elderly population.
Genetic disorders and practical application of genetics in nursingArifa T N
This document discusses Down syndrome, which is caused by trisomy 21 resulting in an extra copy of chromosome 21. It presents in 1 in 800-1000 births and risk increases with maternal age. Clinical features include intellectual disability, flat facial features, congenital heart defects, and other physical signs. Management involves genetic counseling of parents on the condition, recurrence risks, and options for antenatal testing and diagnosis. Down syndrome results in lifelong intellectual and developmental disability and medical issues, though early support services can help maximize quality of life.
Biology - Chp 14 - Human Heredity - PowerPointMr. Walajtys
1. The human genome project mapped the entire human genome and found it contains around 31,000 genes, fewer than organisms like fruit flies and roundworms.
2. Human traits are determined by single genes, but most are influenced by multiple genes and the environment. Scientists use tools like pedigrees and karyotypes to study inheritance of traits.
3. Examples of genetic disorders caused by single gene mutations include cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, Tay-Sachs disease, and phenylketonuria (PKU).
Learning and understanding the correlation between telomere shortening and disease is the most important principal to stop the aging process. Dr Sears is one of the worlds most respected and renown Anti-Aging physicians in the world. Please visit our website at www.alsearsmd.com or www.searwellnesscenter.com for tons of great free information.
The Amerithrax investigation followed the 2001 anthrax attacks that killed 5 people. Letters containing anthrax spores were sent to media outlets and two senators. The FBI investigation into the source of the anthrax took 7 years.
Mutations are changes in DNA sequences that are present in less than 1% of a population. Mutations can range from single DNA base changes to missing or extra chromosomes. They can affect protein function and transcription. Most mutations are recessive and cause loss of function, while gain-of-function mutations tend to be dominant.
Sickle cell disease was the first genetic illness understood at the molecular level. It results from a single amino acid substitution in the beta globin protein that causes
Telomeres are repetitive DNA sequences that cap the ends of chromosomes and protect them from deterioration. They naturally shorten each time a cell divides until a limit is reached, known as the Hayflick limit, after which the cell stops dividing or dies. Telomerase is an enzyme that can lengthen telomeres and counteract their shortening, allowing cells to divide indefinitely. Telomere length is correlated with aging, with shorter telomeres associated with increased risk of age-related diseases. Factors like smoking, obesity, stress and inflammation can accelerate telomere shortening while healthy behaviors like exercise and nutrition may help maintain telomere length and slow aging.
The document discusses several key concepts relating to cancer biology and the hallmarks of cancer. It describes the evolutionary process of tumor development and lists some of the important hallmarks identified by Hanahan and Weinberg, including sustaining proliferative signaling, evading growth suppressors, resisting cell death, enabling replicative immortality, inducing angiogenesis, and activating invasion and metastasis. It also mentions several genetic mutations that have been identified in cancers like glioblastomas and lung adenocarcinomas.
Cancer cells exhibit several key characteristics: abnormal nuclei, increased vascularization to supply nutrients, disorganized and uncontrolled growth (anaplasia), and a lack of contact inhibition allowing unchecked growth. Carcinogenesis, or the development of cancer, occurs in stages - beginning with anaplasia, then tumor development, vascularization, and potentially metastasis where cancer cells spread to other sites. Oncogenes can develop from proto-oncogenes due to mutations from initiators like toxins or viruses, and promoters further stimulate abnormal cell growth. Viruses may incorporate oncogenes into host cell DNA, disrupting genes and potentially causing cancer.
The document discusses quantifying changes in hemolymph glucose concentration in crayfish in response to different environmental conditions. It provides background on glucose regulation and production of crustacean hyperglycemic hormone in crayfish. The experiment aims to measure changes in crayfish hemolymph glucose levels when exposed to variations in temperature, salinity, and stress by taking hemolymph samples before and after applying each treatment and comparing glucose concentrations. Safety is emphasized when handling crayfish and needles.
Day 4 September 4th 2014 Chapters 2 and 3 Lipids and CellsAmy Hollingsworth
This document summarizes key concepts from a biology textbook. It discusses cholesterol and its role in cell membranes. It then covers proteins, noting they are made of amino acids and serve various functions. It discusses enzymes as proteins that catalyze reactions by lowering activation energy. Finally, it discusses nucleic acids DNA and RNA, noting DNA stores genetic information in base pairs and RNA translates this into proteins.
This document summarizes key points from a class on evolutionary biology and the tree of life. It discusses how organisms are classified into domains and monophyletic groups based on their evolutionary relationships and genetic similarities. The three domains are bacteria, archaea, and eukarya. Bacteria are single-celled organisms with circular DNA, while archaea include many species that live in extreme environments. The eukarya domain contains plants, animals, fungi and protists.
The document discusses several topics:
1. It questions the reliability of eyewitness testimony and explores whether animals can exhibit superstitious behaviors.
2. It defines superstition and explains how Clever Hans the horse could only answer questions when he could see his trainer, highlighting the importance of experimental design.
3. It covers topics in chemistry including the elements that make up the human body, atomic structure, and how atoms bond together to form molecules through ionic and covalent bonding.
This document provides an overview of natural selection and evolution through a lab activity on the topic. It begins by listing learning objectives for the lab that cover how predation and reproduction impact evolutionary fitness. The document then defines evolution as change over time and provides examples of evidence. It discusses factors necessary for natural selection, Darwin's theory, and examples of adaptation from Darwin's observations of the Galapagos Islands. Rules for an evolution game simulation are outlined to demonstrate natural selection concepts in a fun and informative way.
This document discusses mating systems in humans and animals. It describes polygamy, which includes polygyny and polyandry, and monogamy. Mating systems can be complicated to define due to differences in mating behavior versus bonding behavior, variation within species, and differences between males and females. Examination of birds and mammals reveals one key difference - species with more sexual dimorphism, or differences in body size between males and females, tend toward polygamy, while species with little sexual dimorphism tend toward monogamy. The document then discusses communication systems in animals, including chemical, acoustical, and visual communication, as well as complex forms like the honeybee waggle dance. Honest signals
This document discusses human population growth rates around the world. It notes that population growth rates are higher in low and middle income countries than in wealthy nations. While death rates have declined due to advances in healthcare, birth rates remain high in some areas, leading to population momentum. Rapid population growth can strain countries' ability to raise living standards and protect the environment. The document recommends strategies like increasing access to healthcare, education, and social services to help lower high fertility rates.
- Tropical rain forests, coral reefs, and islands contain a significant amount of biodiversity that is at high risk of loss. These habitats are highly represented in 25 global biodiversity hotspots that collectively cover only 1% of the Earth's surface, located predominantly near the equator.
- MacArthur and Wilson's theory of island biogeography established that the number of species on an island is related to its size and distance from mainland sources of immigrants. This theory helped explain and predict patterns of species diversity on islands.
- Preserving keystone species is an effective conservation strategy because their loss can cause major ecosystem changes, significantly impacting biodiversity beyond the single species.
This document discusses meiosis and how it generates genetic variation through the production of gametes like sperm and eggs. It provides details on the steps of meiosis, including how homologous chromosomes separate and how sister chromatids are divided. This process results in four haploid cells with unique combinations of alleles from each parent. The document also covers how sex is determined and can be influenced by deviations in chromosome number, like Down syndrome caused by nondisjunction leading to an extra chromosome 21.
This document contains questions and answers about various ecological concepts. It discusses the components of ecosystems and habitats, how biomes are determined, factors that influence weather patterns, how rain shadows are formed, why Europe is warmer than eastern Canada at similar latitudes, the differences between food chains and webs, consequences of trophic inefficiencies, examples of coevolution and mutualism, why succession rarely leads to climax communities, and how keystone species function similar to a keystone in an arch structure.
Q METHODOLOGY AS A NEEDS ASSESSMENT TOOL FOR BIOLOGY GRADUATE TEACHING ASSIST...Amy Hollingsworth
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study is to demonstrate how Q Methodology can be used as a needs assessment tool for a Biology graduate teaching assistant (GTA) instructional training program. GTAs are used as the instructors of an increasingly diverse population of undergraduate students. GTAs are a diverse population of students with varying amounts of pedagogical preparation, research abilities, and motivation to complete their graduate study. They are often expected to prepare and grade exams, write their own syllabi, design course curriculum, prepare and present lectures, monitor student progress, hold office hours, and assign final grades, all with minimal faculty supervision. Although not all GTAs will become professors, many will, and the teaching assistantship remains the major preparation for their roles as faculty members. Since the majority of science professors have been GTAs, this instructional training program is of critical importance.
Approaches to developing instructional training programs for GTAs vary from departmental workshops to campus-wide instructional seminars. Program evaluation is an intrinsic part of assuring that such programs best serve GTA needs, and that GTAs can best fulfill their roles in their respective departments. Q Methodology offers a number of potential advantages over traditional survey techniques for assessing needs of GTAs throughout their graduate school career, allowing program supervisors to evaluate and modify the program relative to GTA needs. Q Methodology allows the researcher to identify and interpret various viewpoints the GTAs hold in regard to graduate school.
This is not only important to the supervisors of GTA instructional programs, but to the GTAs.
This Q Methodology study led to three GTA viewpoints (“The Emerging Teacher,” “The GTA Who Prefers Research,” and “The Anxious GTA”) that provide insight about GTA and programmatic needs. Q Methodology can provide predictor profiles, or “typologies” that are more useful than simple variables and demographic information for the classification of people, especially within program evaluation (Newman & Ramlo, 2011). “The Anxious GTA” viewpoint, which suggests a group of GTAs who may be at risk for failure in their degree program, may be further investigated for retention and program completion. The results of this study will be used to consider potential changes or updates to the existing training program that may include scaffolding, differentiation, peer or faculty mentoring, or self-directed learning strategies.
This document contains notes from a biology class covering cell membranes, transport mechanisms, and cell organelles. Key points include:
1) Cell membranes have molecular markers that identify the cell type and allow immune cells to recognize foreign cells. Passive transport mechanisms like diffusion and osmosis move molecules across membranes down concentration gradients.
2) Active transport uses cellular energy to move molecules against concentration gradients, either directly using ATP (primary active transport) or indirectly by coupling to another transport process (secondary active transport).
3) Eukaryotic cells contain organelles that perform specialized functions like the nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and vacuoles
This document provides information about genetics and inheritance for a dragon genetics lab. It defines key terms like heredity, traits, alleles, and dominant and recessive genes. It summarizes Gregor Mendel's pioneering work in genetics, including his laws of segregation and independent assortment. The document discusses inheritance patterns for autosomal and sex-linked genes, as well as complex inheritance like incomplete dominance and environmental influences. The goal is for students to understand basic genetics concepts and how they are demonstrated in a model organism.
Lab 9 antibiotic resistance and the susceptibility of bacteria lab fall 2014Amy Hollingsworth
This lab focuses on antibiotic resistance and the susceptibility of bacteria. Students will learn to distinguish between different types of antimicrobials like antiseptics and disinfectants. They will explore how overuse of antibiotics has led to increased resistance in bacteria and endangered the effectiveness of drugs through evolution. The lab aims to demonstrate aseptic technique and identify solutions that kill bacteria to understand the problems of antibiotic resistance and persistent infections like MRSA.
This document provides a study guide for Hollingsworth Biology Exam 1 covering Chapters 1-3. It includes outlines of the key topics and concepts in each chapter, including scientific thinking, chemistry, and cells. For Chapter 1, the outline covers the scientific method, theories vs. hypotheses, experimental design, and limits of science. Chapter 2 covers atoms, molecules, important biomolecules like carbohydrates and proteins, and nucleic acids. Chapter 3 discusses prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and cell membranes. The guide provides a high-level overview of the material that will be covered on the exam.
Lab 10 water quality and macroinvertebrate diversity fall 2014Amy Hollingsworth
This document discusses aquatic macroinvertebrates and their use in assessing water quality. It will teach students to describe macroinvertebrates, understand watersheds, and explain bio-monitoring. Students will learn about collecting macroinvertebrates, and how their presence indicates water quality. The document compares two streams - Bath Creek with abundant plants and slow flow, and shaded Yellow Creek with rocky bottom and fast flow. Photosynthesis and cellular respiration affect oxygen levels differently in each stream.
The document provides advice for teaching assistants on how to succeed in their role. It discusses establishing professional relationships with advisors and colleagues, the importance of balancing teaching responsibilities with graduate studies, and developing skills as both an educator and researcher. Teaching assistants are encouraged to ask questions, keep detailed records, work closely with advisors, find mentors, and embrace new challenges as they socialize into their dual role of supporting student learning while furthering their own education.
1. The document discusses cell division and chromosomes, including different types of cell division like mitosis and meiosis.
2. It covers topics like DNA replication, the structure of chromosomes, and how mitosis leads to duplicate cells through several steps.
3. The document also discusses how uncontrolled cell growth and division can lead to cancer, the second leading cause of death in the US, and how cancer treatments using chemotherapy and radiation aim to kill or slow dividing cells.
This document summarizes key points from a chapter about controlling gene expression and the applications of biotechnology. It discusses how transcription factors regulate genes and three types of mutations. It also covers genetic engineering techniques like restriction enzymes and PCR. Applications of biotechnology include producing nutrient-rich crops, insect-resistant plants, and using recombinant DNA to produce human insulin and growth hormone. The document notes both promises and concerns of genetic modification, and challenges of gene therapy. It also describes DNA fingerprinting for identifying individuals.
The document summarizes key concepts from chapters 17-19 about cell reproduction, cancer, and genetics. It discusses:
1) The two main phases of the cell cycle - interphase where the cell grows and duplicates DNA, and mitosis where the nucleus and cytoplasm divide.
2) Cancer develops when cells divide uncontrollably and undergo physical changes, becoming malignant tumors that can spread. The top 10 cancers are discussed.
3) Genetics concepts like inheritance patterns, dominant and recessive alleles, sex-linked traits, and genetic disorders like Down syndrome are explained. Genes influence traits but environments and multiple genes also play a role.
The document discusses cellular reproduction and meiosis. It explains that cellular reproduction allows for the replacement of lost or damaged cells through cell division. Meiosis produces haploid gametes involved in sexual reproduction, which increases genetic variation in offspring through processes like random fertilization and crossing over of homologous chromosomes. Errors in meiosis can result in conditions like Down syndrome if nondisjunction occurs, producing gametes with an abnormal number of chromosomes.
- Lysosomes are round, membrane-enclosed vesicles that function as garbage disposals within cells. The endomembrane system includes the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, vacuoles, and chloroplasts.
- The endoplasmic reticulum builds proteins and detoxifies toxins. The Golgi apparatus processes and packages cell products for delivery. Vacuoles provide storage and waste management in plant cells. Chloroplasts are the sites of photosynthesis in plant cells.
- Chapter 5 discusses DNA, how it contains genetic instructions, and how those instructions get expressed to build organisms via transcription and translation. Mutations can damage DNA and affect protein production and organismal traits.
This document summarizes key points about cell and nuclear division:
1) In sexual reproduction, gametes are haploid with one set of chromosomes, while the zygote formed from their fusion is diploid with two sets. Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from two sets to one set before fertilization.
2) All human body cells are diploid except gametes, which are haploid.
3) Cancer results from uncontrolled cell division which can be caused by carcinogenic agents like asbestos, radiation, or certain viruses. Genetic factors may also contribute to cancer risk.
Stem cells can develop into specialized cells and act as a repair system in the body. They are found in embryos, umbilical cords, and fetuses. While stem cell research may help cure diseases, it is controversial because it involves embryos and fetal tissue. Supporters argue it could treat conditions like Parkinson's and heart disease, while opponents believe it amounts to killing embryos or playing God. The document discusses genetic disorders, the human genome project, and arguments for and against stem cell research.
The document discusses cancer epidemiology, etiology, pathophysiology, and carcinogenesis. It notes that the most commonly diagnosed cancers are breast, lung, colorectal, liver, and cervical cancers. Cancer develops through multiple genetic mutations over time from factors like viruses, radiation, chemicals and lifestyle/diet. Carcinogenesis involves initiation of DNA damage, promotion of cell growth, progression to malignancy, and potential metastasis. Cancer development and growth involves deregulated cell proliferation, loss of differentiation, evasion of immune destruction, self-sufficiency in growth signals, insensitivity to anti-growth signals, sustained angiogenesis, and tissue invasion and metastasis.
Mitosis and meiosis are two types of cell division. Mitosis produces two identical daughter cells through one nuclear division and is important for growth and healing. Meiosis produces four non-identical haploid gametes through two nuclear divisions and leads to greater genetic variation in offspring which is important for evolution. Errors in DNA copying during cell division can lead to diseases like cancer if not corrected.
These are Lectures of Basic molecular pharmacology presented by Dr.Omer Yahia In coordination with faculty of pharmacy university of Khartoum, al-Neelen medical research center, GENOM Professional training center and National center of Research (Ministry of science and communication).
The document discusses genetics, genetic disorders, and stem cell research. It defines dominant, recessive, and co-dominant alleles and how they control traits. It also defines single-gene, multifactorial, and chromosomal genetic disorders. It discusses the pros and cons of fetal stem cell research, with pros being stem cells' potential and cons being the ethical issues around using embryonic stem cells.
1. Cancer cells have lost genetic controls on cell division and are immortal, metastasizing and spreading to other tissues. They have also lost differentiation.
2. The cell cycle is tightly regulated by internal and external signals at checkpoints like G1 to control division. Cancer cells evade these controls.
3. Oncogenes are mutated genes that cause uncontrolled growth, while tumor suppressor genes normally stop division but are inactivated in cancer.
Cancer arises due to mutations in genes that control cell growth and proliferation. These include proto-oncogenes which promote growth and tumor suppressor genes which safeguard against uncontrolled growth. Cancer develops when multiple mutations activate proto-oncogenes and inactivate tumor suppressor genes within a cell. Additional features of cancer cells include independent growth, lack of response to growth signals, avoidance of programmed cell death, unlimited replication potential, induction of blood vessel growth (angiogenesis) to enable growth beyond a few mm, and ability to metastasize and spread to other tissues. The document provides an overview of how genetic mutations contribute to the development and characteristics of cancer at the cellular level.
Cancer is caused by uncontrolled cell growth and can spread throughout the body. The three main properties of cancer cells are that they grow aggressively, can invade nearby tissues, and may spread (metastasize) to distant areas. Nearly all cancers are caused by genetic abnormalities within cells that affect genes regulating cell growth and death. Some genetic changes are inherited, but many are acquired from environmental exposures like tobacco smoke, radiation, chemicals or infectious agents. Cancer development involves multiple genetic mutations that cause cells to proliferate uncontrollably and evade the immune system.
This document discusses the development of cancer from mutations in DNA. It describes how a single mutated cell can multiply unchecked over many generations, accumulating further mutations that allow cancerous growths and tumors to form. As the tumors progress, they recruit blood vessels, invade nearby tissue, and may eventually metastasize by spreading to other parts of the body via the bloodstream or lymphatic system. The development of cancer is a multi-step process that typically requires multiple genetic mutations over many years.
Melanoma is a serious form of skin cancer that occurs in over 200,000 Americans each year. It is detected through biopsies of suspicious areas that examine cells for gene mutations and changes in cell division rates. Melanoma interacts with the immune system in complex ways, both evading detection and being targeted by T cells, and research continues to untangle this relationship. Learning about disease interactions with the immune system has been fascinating but also frightening to see how quickly adaptations can occur.
Leukemia is detected through mutations that cause blood cancers. It interacts with the immune system by affecting white blood cells, causing abnormal production that prevents fighting infection. This week's learning has changed my understanding of cancers like leukemia by explaining
Cancer arises from mutations that affect cell division and death rates, leading to uncontrolled cell growth. The cell cycle is controlled by cyclins and CDKs, which are activated by growth factors binding to cell receptors. Cancer is caused by genetic mutations that cause cells to proliferate indefinitely, evade growth suppression, and metastasize. Common mutations occur in proto-oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, DNA repair genes, and apoptosis genes. Multiple genetic alterations are typically required for cancer to develop and progress.
1) Mutations are changes in genes or chromosomes that result in a different phenotype than normal. They can be caused by errors in DNA replication or by damage from environmental factors.
2) Mutations can be harmful, helpful, or neutral. Harmful mutations reduce survival and reproduction, while helpful mutations increase it. Neutral mutations have no effect.
3) Common types of mutations include point mutations and chromosomal mutations. Inherited mutations can be passed from parents to children, while acquired mutations occur due to environmental damage or replication errors in cells.
The document discusses several topics related to genetics and biology:
1) Mutations can affect gene expression and the amino acid sequence of proteins. Specialization of cells is usually due to differences in gene expression, not the genes themselves.
2) Genetic engineering is used to produce novel products by inserting exogenous DNA into bacterial cells to alter their genetics and express new proteins.
3) The immune system relies on phagocytes, B-lymphocytes, T-lymphocytes to protect against infection, as well as antibodies and vaccination.
4) Breast cancer is discussed in relation to mutation, heredity, and the immune response working to protect against disease. Mutation and hered
The document discusses several topics related to genetics and biology:
1) Mutations can affect gene expression and the amino acid sequence of proteins. Specialization of cells is usually due to differences in gene expression, not genes.
2) Genetic engineering is used to produce novel products by inserting exogenous DNA into bacterial cells to alter their genetics and express new proteins.
3) The immune system relies on phagocytes, B-lymphocytes, T-lymphocytes to protect against infection. Antibodies and vaccination also protect against infectious diseases.
4) There are differences between bacteria and viruses in how they infect and what treatments work. Compromised immunity increases risk of infection.
The document is the 2016-2017 student handbook for Washington High School. It provides information on school administration and policies regarding rights and responsibilities, attendance, academics, extracurricular activities, student expectations, and discipline. The handbook outlines rules and guidelines for students to follow in order to achieve success while maintaining a safe learning environment.
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive function. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms.
This document provides information for incoming freshmen and their parents at Washington High School. It lists key school administrators and counselors. It outlines the school schedule, including 8 class periods of 47 minutes each and daily lunch and study hall periods. It describes the career technical education, Advanced Placement, and College Credit Plus course offerings. It also lists the athletic director and fall, winter, and spring sports. Finally, it provides details about Advanced Placement and College Credit Plus programs for earning college credit while in high school.
The document is a letter informing parents about a new after-school academic club called the College Readiness Club (CRC) starting the week of November 30th at Massillon Junior High. The CRC will meet weekly for 7th and 8th grade students to improve their grades and dedicate time to academic growth with teacher assistance. Parents must sign a permission form by November 30th for their child to attend the scheduled after-school sessions through the end of the 2nd quarter and commit to picking their child up at 3:30pm.
This document discusses 15 dangerous apps and websites that parents should be aware of. It provides details on apps like Tinder, Snapchat, and Kik that are popular for sexting and make it easy for predators to find minors. Other apps like Whisper, Yik Yak and Ask.fm are highlighted as enabling anonymous bullying. The document advises parents to educate themselves on potential online dangers and monitor the apps their children are using.
The document outlines the goals and action steps for Dublin City Schools. It includes 3 goals:
1. Educators will establish and communicate learning goals, monitor student progress, and celebrate success.
2. Educators will use diverse, high-quality assessments to understand student learning.
3. Educators will use assessment results to create differentiated experiences to maximize learning for all students.
For each goal, there are annual targets and action steps outlined to work towards achieving the goals over 3 years. The document provides details on Dublin City Schools' instructional and district focus to provide a well-rounded, world-class education through formative instructional practices.
The document discusses school culture and climate and provides 13 tips for improving board culture. School culture refers to the shared norms, values and beliefs that shape interactions and define a school, while climate describes the physical and behavioral environment. Some signs of positive culture include collaboration, professional development focus, and shared goals. The 13 tips include having conversations about culture, celebrating success, empowering administrators, conducting surveys, and discussing the school motto. The overall message is that school culture is important and boards can work to define and strengthen the culture.
This newsletter provides updates on programs and events happening in the Massillon City School District. It discusses the United Way volunteering at local schools to read with students. It also profiles the growing Career Technical Education program and opportunities it provides for students. Additionally, it informs readers about the Issue 34 renewal levy that generates $2 million annually for the district and maintains current operations and programming if passed.
The document outlines the schedule of events for McKinley Week from October 24-31 at Washington High School in Massillon, Ohio. It includes activities such as decorating the school, team meals, a prayer breakfast, band parade, and the McKinley football game on October 31st.
This document discusses strategies for minimizing liability from bullying lawsuits. It covers relevant laws, prevention through policies and forms, addressing complaints, and special education considerations. The presentation provides tips for districts, such as thoroughly investigating all complaints, applying consequences flexibly, and documenting all actions taken. It also discusses regulatory agencies and individual liability risks for employees.
This document provides an overview of Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the implementing regulations from the U.S. Department of Education. It discusses topics such as child find, evaluations, determining if a student is disabled, determining if a student needs accommodations, developing an accommodation plan, notice of procedural safeguards, and disciplining students with disabilities. The presentation was given by Kathy Perrico of the Massillon City School District to provide information on Section 504.
This document provides information about ACT test prep courses being offered in Canfield, Ohio by Mr. Diciccio. The courses will be held on Wednesday evenings from 6:00-8:35 PM from October 28th through December 2nd, with the exception of November 25th. The courses go beyond crash seminars and include a 900-page prep guide with 100 practice questions. Students who attend every class and complete all assignments typically increase their ACT scores by 2-3 points. The cost for the courses ranges from $189-239 depending on enrollment. The deadline to register is October 26th at noon.
Massillon City School District Career Advising Plan Amy Hollingsworth
The Massillon City School District career advising plan focuses on career exploration, interests, and planning from elementary through high school. In elementary school, students identify interests through surveys and activities. In middle school, students continue exploring interests and careers through surveys, field trips, and speakers. In high school, students focus on career planning, decision-making, and transition by exploring career interests and education options through various tools, activities, and resources.
This community newsletter provides updates on various topics related to the Massillon City School District. It discusses the district beginning to offer free breakfast and lunches to all students through a federal program. It also discusses implementing a new four-tier busing system to cut transportation costs. The newsletter indicates the district will have a renewal levy on the November ballot to maintain current operations and avoid debt. It provides information on new hires and staff in the district. It also summarizes events like a student representing the district at a conference, a student trip to Costa Rica, and upcoming student testing.
79 Interesting Ways to Use Google Forms in the ClassroomAmy Hollingsworth
Google Forms can be used in a variety of ways to engage students and collect information in the classroom. The document describes 40 different uses of Google Forms, including using forms to conduct surveys, collect feedback, collaboratively build timelines, track student projects, and collect student account information. Forms provide a paperless way to gather and organize data from students.
This document contains summaries of 14 chapters on ecology and biology topics. It defines key terms like individual, population, community, ecosystem. It also summarizes differences between biology and ecology focus, population growth patterns, survivorship curves, and factors that influence population size and distribution like climate, habitat availability, and natural selection.
This document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 15 of an ecology textbook, including:
1) Natural selection causes organisms to become adapted to both biotic and abiotic environmental factors. Each species' niche defines its role in a community.
2) Competition and predation are important influences on community structure. Predation produces adaptations in both predators and prey.
3) Not all species interactions are negative - mutualism and commensalism are examples of positive interactions. Communities can change over time through succession or remain stable.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
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তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
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A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
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How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
Assessment and Planning in Educational technology.pptxKavitha Krishnan
In an education system, it is understood that assessment is only for the students, but on the other hand, the Assessment of teachers is also an important aspect of the education system that ensures teachers are providing high-quality instruction to students. The assessment process can be used to provide feedback and support for professional development, to inform decisions about teacher retention or promotion, or to evaluate teacher effectiveness for accountability purposes.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
10. 5.13 Fears and
risks: Are
genetically
modified foods
safe?
11. Fear #1: Organisms
that we want to kill
may become
invincible.
Fear #2: Organisms
that we don’t want
to kill may be killed
inadvertently.
Fear #3: Genetically
modified crops are
not tested or
regulated
adequately.
12. Fear #4: Eating
genetically modified
foods is dangerous.
Fear #5: Loss of
genetic diversity
among crop plants
is risky.
Fear #6: Hidden
costs may reduce
the financial
advantages of
genetically modified
crops.
14. 5.14 The treatment of diseases and
production of medicines are improved
with biotechnology
Prevent diseases
Cure diseases
Treating diseases
• The treatment of diabetes
25. Why has gene therapy had
such a poor record of success
in curing diseases?
26. Gene Therapy Difficulties
1. Difficulty getting the working gene into
the specific cells where it is needed.
2. Difficulty getting the working gene into
enough cells and at the right rate to
have a physiological effect.
27. Gene Therapy Difficulties
3. Difficulty arising from the transfer
organism getting into unintended cells.
4. Difficulty regulating gene expression.
35. Chapter 6: Chromosomes
and Cell Division
Insert new photo (Jackson 5)
Continuity and variety
Lectures by Mark Manteuffel, St. Louis Community College
37. 6.1 Immortal cells can spell
trouble: cell division in
sickness and health.
38. Telomeres
The telomere is like a
protective cap at the
end of the DNA.
Every time a cell
divides, the telomere
gets a bit shorter.
Insert new fig 6-1
47. Complementarity
The characteristic that in the double-stranded
DNA molecule the base on one strand always
has the same pairing-partner (called the
complementary base) on the other strand
Every “A” (adenine) pairs with “T” (thymine)
and vice-versa.
Every “G” (guanine) pairs with “C” (cytosine)
and vice-versa.
50. Mutation
A variety of errors can occur during replication.
Several DNA repair processes occur after
replication.
If an error remains, however, the sequences in
a replicated DNA molecule (including the
genes) can be different from those in the
parent molecule.
51. 6.6 Most cells are not immortal:
Mitosis generates replacements.
What is dust?
Why is it your fault?
52. Mitosis has just one purpose:
To enable cells to generate new,
genetically identical cells.
There are two different reasons for this
need:
1. Growth
2. Replacement
53.
54. Apoptosis
The pre-planned process of cell suicide
Certain cells are targeted for apoptosis.
55. Mitosis
The number of (somatic) cells that must
be replaced by mitosis every day is huge.
The rate at which mitosis occurs varies
dramatically.
68. Cancer
Unrestrained cell growth and division…
…can lead to tumors…
…the second leading cause of death in the
United States! (20%, leading is heart
disease)
74. Why is the treatment for cancer often
considered as bad as the disease?
75. Cancer is unrestrained cell growth and division.
Cancer can lead to large masses of cells called
malignant tumors that can cause serious health
problems.
Treatment focuses on killing or slowing the
division of the cells using chemotherapy and/or
radiation.
Editor's Notes
Shortly after news of Dolly’s birth, teams set about cloning a variety of other species including mice, cows, pigs, and cats (Figure 5-44 Genetically identical cloned animals). Not all of this work was driven by simple curiosity. For farmers, cloning could have real value. It can take a long time to produce animals with desirable traits from an agricultural perspective—such as increased milk production in cows. And with each successive generation of breeding it can be difficult to maintain these traits in the population. But through the process of transgenic techniques and whole-animal cloning, large numbers of the valuable animals with such traits can be produced and maintained.
Medical researchers, too, see much to gain from cloning. In particular, transgenic animals containing human genes—such as the hamsters producing rhu-EPO, discussed earlier—can be very valuable. But can a human be cloned? At this point, it is almost certain that the cloning of a human will be possible. Many people wonder, however, whether such an endeavor should be pursued. There is near unanimity among scientists that human cloning to produce children should not be attempted. Some of the reasons cited relate to problems of safety for the mother and the child, legal and philosophical issues relating to the inability of cloned individuals to give consent, problems of the exploitation of women, and concerns regarding identity and individuality. Governments are struggling to develop wise regulations for this new world.
In another time, Colin Pitchfork, a murderer and rapist, would have walked free (Figure 5-45 Betrayed by his DNA). But in 1987, he was captured and convicted, betrayed by his DNA, and is now serving two life sentences in prison. Pitchford’s trouble began when he raped and murdered two 15-year-old high school girls in a small village in England in the 1980s. The police thought they had their perpetrator when a man confessed, but only to the second murder. He denied any involvement with the first murder, though, which perplexed the police because the details of the two crimes strongly suggested that the same person committed both.
At the time, British biologist Alec Jeffreys made the important discovery that there were small pieces of DNA within every person’s chromosomes that were tremendously variable in their base sequences. In much the way each person has a driver’s license or Social Security number that differs from everyone else’s, these DNA fragments are variable enough that it is extremely unlikely that two people would ever have identical sequences at these locations. Thus, a comparison between these regions in a DNA sample from a person and in evidence left at a crime scene would enable police to determine that the evidence came from that person.
Dr. Jeffreys analyzed DNA left by the murderer/rapist on the victims and found that it did indeed come from a single person, and that that person was not the man who originally confessed. That original suspect was released and has the distinction of being the first person cleared of a crime due to DNA fingerprinting. To track down the criminal, police then requested blood samples of all men in the area who were between 18- and 35-years-old, collecting and analyzing more than 5,000 blood samples. This led them to Colin Pitchfork, whose DNA matched perfectly the DNA left on both of the victims, and ultimately was the evidence responsible for his conviction. (He almost slipped through, having persuaded a friend to give a blood sample in his name. But when the friend was overheard telling the story in a pub, police tracked down Pitchfork to get a blood sample.)
DNA fingerprinting is now used extensively in forensic investigations in much the same way that regular fingerprints have been used for the past 100 years. But traditional fingerprinting is limited in its usefulness for many crimes because no actual fingerprints are left behind. DNA fingerprinting, on the other hand, is not so limited because DNA samples more frequently are left behind, usually in the form of semen, blood, hair, skin, or other tissue. As a consequence, this technology has been directly responsible for bringing thousands of criminals to justice and, perhaps as importantly, for establishing the innocence of more than 200 people who were wrongly convicted of murder and other capital crimes. Let’s examine how DNA fingerprinting is done, why it is such a powerful forensic tool, and why it is not foolproof.
For each STR locus analyzed, an individual’s genotype is determined by using PCR to amplify that region, then measuring the length of the STR region using electrophoresis. The length of the region can then be used to determine the number of times that the STR is repeated. For a single STR region, an individual’s genotype is two numbers, reflecting the number of STR repeats in the copies inherited from the mother and from the father. And a person’s full DNA fingerprint is a string of 26 numbers that includes the two numbers for each of 13 STRs.
In court, a suspect’s genotype might be compared with the DNA fingerprint obtained from evidence found at the crime scene. DNA samples from different people will produce different 26-number “fingerprints,” whereas different samples of DNA from one person will have exactly the same genotype (FIGURE 5-47).
Section 6-1 Opener
Cell division by fission in Staphylococcus aureus, a disease-causing bacterium having resistance to multiple antibiotics.
Once you are fully grown, do you have just one set of cells that live as long as you do? The answer is no: Your cells are continually dying off and the ones that remain divide and replace the cells you’ve lost, in an ongoing process. But how long can this last? Can it go on forever? And how does a cell even know how old it is?
Just as a car comes with an odometer, which keeps track of how far the car has been driven, animal cells have a mechanism that keeps track of how many times the cell has divided. It’s a section of DNA, called the “telomere,” at the tip of every chromosome. Every time a cell divides, the telomere gets a bit shorter. Occurring right next to the valuable DNA sequences that specify genes, the telomere is like a protective cap at the end of the DNA. But after some critical number of cell divisions, with the telomere getting shorter and shorter each time, any additional cell divisions will cause the loss of functional, essential DNA, which means almost certain death for the cell (Figure 6-1 A cellular “odometer”).
At birth, the telomeres in most human cells are long enough to support about 50 cell divisions. Occasionally, however, people are born with telomeres that are much shorter than normal. In these people, their cells and tissue begin to appear aged very soon after birth (Figure 6-2 Just a child). As a consequence, they rarely live beyond the age of 13.
Look around your dorm room. Dust is everywhere. What is it? It is primarily dead skin cells. In fact, you and your roommates slough off millions of dead skin cells each day. Yet your skin is not disappearing. How can that be? Obviously, your body is replacing the sloughed off cells. The cells have simply worn out, so your body creates replacements, preferably identical copies of the old cells. How does it do this? Mitosis.
1. Growth. During growth and development, organisms get bigger and must add new cells. In fact, if you want to see cell division in action, one sure-fire place to look is at the tip of a plant root because that is one of the fastest growing parts of a plant, at about half an inch per day (Figure 6-7 Part 1 Reasons for mitosis).
Some other cells that must be replaced actually die on purpose, in the pre-planned process of cell suicide called apoptosis. This seemingly counterproductive strategy is employed in parts of the body where the cells are likely to accumulate significant genetic damage over time and are therefore at high risk of becoming cancer cells (a process described later in this chapter). Cells targeted for apoptosis include many of the cells lining the digestive tract as well as those in the liver, two locations where cells are almost constantly in contact with harmful substances.
Every day, a huge number of cells in an individual must be replaced by mitosis. In humans this number is in the billions. Nearly all of the somatic cells of the body—that is, everything other than sperm- and egg-producing cells—undergo mitosis with a few notable exceptions. Brain cells and heart muscle cells, in particular, do not appear to divide, or, if they do divide, they do so at very, very slow rates. (It is not known why this is so.)
The rate at which mitosis occurs varies dramatically. The most rapid cell division occurs in the blood and among the cells lining various tissues and organs. The average red blood cell, for example, is in circulation only for about six weeks and then must be replaced, and the cells lining the intestines are replaced about every three weeks. Hair follicles, too, are among the most rapidly dividing cells.
For mitosis to begin, the parent cell replicates its DNA, creating a duplicate copy of each chromosome. Once this task is completed, the remainder of mitosis can take place, in which the chromosomes are separated into identical sets in two separate nuclei, and then the cell can divide into two duplicate cells, the daughter cells.
Mitosis occurs in just four steps. It cannot begin, however, until after an important event occurs during the previous portion of the cell cycle, interphase. During the synthesis portion of interphase, all of the chromosomes replicate. Mitosis then begins with 1) the condensing of the chromosomes, which during interphase are all stretched out and stringy. 2) Next, all of the duplicated and condensed pairs of chromosomes move to the center of the cell. 3) Each chromosome is pulled apart from its duplicate. 4) And finally, new cell membranes form around each complete set of chromosomes and the cytoplasm duplicates as well. Where once there was one cell, now there are two (Figure 6-10 A simplified introduction to mitosis).
Let’s look at the process in a bit more detail, keeping in mind that the ultimate consequence of the process is to produce two cells with identical chromosomes.
Interphase: in preparation for mitosis, the chromosomes replicate—Processes essential to cell division take place even before the mitotic phase of the cell cycle begins. During the DNA synthesis part of interphase, every chromosome creates an exact duplicate of itself by replicating. Prior to replication, each chromosome was just a long linear strand of genetic material. Following replication each chromosome is a pair of identical long linear strands, held together at the center, a position called the centromere. (Figure 6-11 Part 1 Mitosis: cell duplication, step by step).
Mitosis
1) The long, linear chromosomes that have replicated condense—Looking at a cell through a microscope, you won’t generally see any chromosomes. Mitosis officially begins when the chromosomes in the cell’s nucleus become more and more tightly coiled. As they condense, they become thick enough that they can be seen through a light microscope.