The document discusses key concepts related to database management systems including data, entities, entity sets, relationships, and database management systems. It defines data as information that has been translated into a form that is efficient for movement or processing. Entities are described as people, places, objects, events or items and entity sets are collections of related entities. Relationships describe interactions between entity sets and can be one-to-one, one-to-many, many-to-one, or many-to-many. A database management system (DBMS) is software that allows users to define, create, maintain and control access to the database, and is responsible for data management, transactions, data independence and security.
ESOFT Metro Campus - Diploma in Software Engineering - (Module IV) Database Concepts
(Template - Virtusa Corporate)
Contents:
Introduction to Databases
Data
Information
Database
Database System
Database Applications
Evolution of Databases
Traditional Files Based Systems
Limitations in Traditional Files
The Database Approach
Advantages of Database Approach
Disadvantages of Database Approach
Database Management Systems
DBMS Functions
Database Architecture
ANSI-SPARC 3 Level Architecture
The Relational Data Model
What is a Relation?
Primary Key
Cardinality and Degree
Relationships
Foreign Key
Data Integrity
Data Dictionary
Database Design
Requirements Collection and analysis
Conceptual Design
Logical Design
Physical Design
Entity Relationship Model
A mini-world example
Entities
Relationships
ERD Notations
Cardinality
Optional Participation
Entities and Relationships
Attributes
Entity Relationship Diagram
Entities
ERD Showing Weak Entities
Super Type / Sub Type Relationships
Mapping ERD to Relational
Map Regular Entities
Map Weak Entities
Map Binary Relationships
Map Associated Entities
Map Unary Relationships
Map Ternary Relationships
Map Supertype/Subtype Relationships
Normalization
Advantages of Normalization
Disadvantages of Normalization
Normal Forms
Functional Dependency
Purchase Order Relation in 0NF
Purchase Order Relation in 1NF
Purchase Order Relations in 2NF
Purchase Order Relations in 3NF
Normalized Relations
BCNF – Boyce Codd Normal Form
Structured Query Language
What We Can Do with SQL ?
SQL Commands
SQL CREATE DATABASE
SQL CREATE TABLE
SQL DROP
SQL Constraints
SQL NOT NULL
SQL PRIMARY KEY
SQL CHECK
SQL FOREIGN KEY
SQL ALTER TABLE
SQL INSERT INTO
SQL INSERT INTO SELECT
SQL SELECT
SQL SELECT DISTINCT
SQL WHERE
SQL AND & OR
SQL ORDER BY
SQL UPDATE
SQL DELETE
SQL LIKE
SQL IN
SQL BETWEEN
SQL INNER JOIN
SQL LEFT JOIN
SQL RIGHT JOIN
SQL UNION
SQL AS
SQL Aggregate Functions
SQL Scalar functions
SQL GROUP BY
SQL HAVING
Database Administration
SQL Database Administration
The document discusses different types of databases including relational, document oriented, embedded, graph, hypertext, operational, distributed, and flat file databases. It provides details on relational databases describing their use of tables, rows, columns, primary keys, and foreign keys. Document oriented databases are described as storing documents similar to records in relational databases but without uniform field sizes. Graph databases use graph structures with nodes and edges to represent data.
The document provides an overview of relational database management system (RDBMS) concepts. It discusses what a database is, different database types like hierarchical, network, relational and object relational. It also explains the relational model proposed by Dr. E.F. Codd, how it uses tables, rows and columns. Key concepts covered include relationships, constraints, keys, normalization and transactions. Entity relationship modeling and diagramming are demonstrated through an example involving producers, depots, collection agents and procurement records.
This document contains information about a Relational Database Management Systems course prepared by D.GAYA, an Assistant Professor. It includes an introduction to database systems, definitions of key terms like data, information, databases, and database management systems. It describes characteristics of DBMS like data being stored in tables, reduced data redundancy, supporting multiple users, and providing security. It also discusses database structures like tables, records, fields, relationships, entities, attributes, and different types of relationships.
Entity relationship model, Components of ER model, Mapping E-R model to Relational schema, Network and Object-Oriented Data models, Storage Strategies: Detailed Storage Architecture, Storing Data, Magnetic Disk, RAID, Other Disks, Magnetic Tape, Storage Access, File & Record Organization, File Organizations & Indexes, Order Indices, B+ Tree Index Files, Hashing Data Dictionary
A database is a collection of logically related data organized for convenient access and manipulation. A DBMS is a collection of programs that enables users to create and maintain a database, perform queries, and generate reports from the database. The database and DBMS together form a database system. Some key advantages of a DBMS include reducing data redundancy and inconsistency, enforcing data integrity, providing security, and facilitating data sharing among multiple users.
This presentation contains the concepts related to database design using ER Diagram. The content is adapted from the contents of the authors of the book mentioned in the reference.
ESOFT Metro Campus - Diploma in Software Engineering - (Module IV) Database Concepts
(Template - Virtusa Corporate)
Contents:
Introduction to Databases
Data
Information
Database
Database System
Database Applications
Evolution of Databases
Traditional Files Based Systems
Limitations in Traditional Files
The Database Approach
Advantages of Database Approach
Disadvantages of Database Approach
Database Management Systems
DBMS Functions
Database Architecture
ANSI-SPARC 3 Level Architecture
The Relational Data Model
What is a Relation?
Primary Key
Cardinality and Degree
Relationships
Foreign Key
Data Integrity
Data Dictionary
Database Design
Requirements Collection and analysis
Conceptual Design
Logical Design
Physical Design
Entity Relationship Model
A mini-world example
Entities
Relationships
ERD Notations
Cardinality
Optional Participation
Entities and Relationships
Attributes
Entity Relationship Diagram
Entities
ERD Showing Weak Entities
Super Type / Sub Type Relationships
Mapping ERD to Relational
Map Regular Entities
Map Weak Entities
Map Binary Relationships
Map Associated Entities
Map Unary Relationships
Map Ternary Relationships
Map Supertype/Subtype Relationships
Normalization
Advantages of Normalization
Disadvantages of Normalization
Normal Forms
Functional Dependency
Purchase Order Relation in 0NF
Purchase Order Relation in 1NF
Purchase Order Relations in 2NF
Purchase Order Relations in 3NF
Normalized Relations
BCNF – Boyce Codd Normal Form
Structured Query Language
What We Can Do with SQL ?
SQL Commands
SQL CREATE DATABASE
SQL CREATE TABLE
SQL DROP
SQL Constraints
SQL NOT NULL
SQL PRIMARY KEY
SQL CHECK
SQL FOREIGN KEY
SQL ALTER TABLE
SQL INSERT INTO
SQL INSERT INTO SELECT
SQL SELECT
SQL SELECT DISTINCT
SQL WHERE
SQL AND & OR
SQL ORDER BY
SQL UPDATE
SQL DELETE
SQL LIKE
SQL IN
SQL BETWEEN
SQL INNER JOIN
SQL LEFT JOIN
SQL RIGHT JOIN
SQL UNION
SQL AS
SQL Aggregate Functions
SQL Scalar functions
SQL GROUP BY
SQL HAVING
Database Administration
SQL Database Administration
The document discusses different types of databases including relational, document oriented, embedded, graph, hypertext, operational, distributed, and flat file databases. It provides details on relational databases describing their use of tables, rows, columns, primary keys, and foreign keys. Document oriented databases are described as storing documents similar to records in relational databases but without uniform field sizes. Graph databases use graph structures with nodes and edges to represent data.
The document provides an overview of relational database management system (RDBMS) concepts. It discusses what a database is, different database types like hierarchical, network, relational and object relational. It also explains the relational model proposed by Dr. E.F. Codd, how it uses tables, rows and columns. Key concepts covered include relationships, constraints, keys, normalization and transactions. Entity relationship modeling and diagramming are demonstrated through an example involving producers, depots, collection agents and procurement records.
This document contains information about a Relational Database Management Systems course prepared by D.GAYA, an Assistant Professor. It includes an introduction to database systems, definitions of key terms like data, information, databases, and database management systems. It describes characteristics of DBMS like data being stored in tables, reduced data redundancy, supporting multiple users, and providing security. It also discusses database structures like tables, records, fields, relationships, entities, attributes, and different types of relationships.
Entity relationship model, Components of ER model, Mapping E-R model to Relational schema, Network and Object-Oriented Data models, Storage Strategies: Detailed Storage Architecture, Storing Data, Magnetic Disk, RAID, Other Disks, Magnetic Tape, Storage Access, File & Record Organization, File Organizations & Indexes, Order Indices, B+ Tree Index Files, Hashing Data Dictionary
A database is a collection of logically related data organized for convenient access and manipulation. A DBMS is a collection of programs that enables users to create and maintain a database, perform queries, and generate reports from the database. The database and DBMS together form a database system. Some key advantages of a DBMS include reducing data redundancy and inconsistency, enforcing data integrity, providing security, and facilitating data sharing among multiple users.
This presentation contains the concepts related to database design using ER Diagram. The content is adapted from the contents of the authors of the book mentioned in the reference.
A relational database contains a collection of tables that are linked together through defined relationships. Each table holds information about an entity or object and consists of rows called tuples and columns called attributes that make up the data about that entity. Relationships between entities are represented by links between tables and can take the form of one-to-one, one-to-many, or many-to-many. Constraints define rules for the data in tables to ensure accuracy and reliability. Indexes help optimize database performance by enabling faster data retrieval and queries. Views allow users to access structured data from one or more tables through a predefined SQL query.
This document discusses different data models used in database management systems including record-based, relational, network, hierarchical, and entity-relationship models. It provides details on each model such as how data is organized. A record-based model uses fixed-length records and fields. The relational model organizes data into tables with rows and columns. The network model links entities through multiple paths in a graph structure. The hierarchical model arranges data in a tree structure. Finally, the entity-relationship model views the real world as entities and relationships between entities.
This document provides an overview of databases and database management systems (DBMS). It discusses what a database is, components of a database system like users and applications, and examples of DBMS like MySQL and Oracle. It also summarizes key database concepts such as data models, relationships between data using keys, and relational algebra operations for querying databases.
This document provides an introduction to relational database management systems (RDBMS). It discusses the key components and functions of an RDBMS including data storage and retrieval, transaction support, concurrency control, and authorization services. Various database concepts are explained such as the relational model, normalization forms, indexing techniques like B+ trees and hashing, and concurrency control methods like locking. Transaction properties like atomicity, consistency, isolation, and durability are also covered. Join operations and views are defined. The document provides a high-level overview of fundamental RDBMS concepts.
ICS Part 2 Computer Science Short NotesAbdul Haseeb
The document provides an overview of basic data concepts including data, data capturing, data manipulation, information, fields, records, files, databases, data integrity, and database management systems. It defines key terms and provides examples. The three main types of files are described as master files, backup files, and transaction files. Database components are listed as data, hardware, software, and personnel.
The document defines key concepts related to database management systems (DBMS) including what a DBMS is, the different levels of database architecture (external, conceptual, internal), data definition language (DDL), normalization, entity relationship (ER) modeling, and database normalization forms. It provides examples to illustrate database concepts and discusses the advantages of using a DBMS compared to traditional file management systems.
This document provides an overview of different data models, including object-based models like the entity-relationship model and object-oriented model, and record-based models like the relational, network, and hierarchical models. It describes the key features of each model, such as how data and relationships are represented, and highlights some of their advantages and disadvantages. The presentation aims to guide students in understanding different approaches to database design and modeling.
This Presentation would make you understand the Fundamentals of Database Design, Data Models (Conceptual, Logical & Physical), ERD, ERM. Also, have real-life examples and case study to understand better.
Data Models In Database Management SystemAmad Ahmad
This document discusses different types of data models used in database management systems (DBMS), including record-based, relational, network, hierarchical, and entity-relationship (ER) models. It provides an overview of key concepts like data, information, databases, and data models. For each model type, it describes how data is organized and represented. For example, it explains that the relational model organizes data into two-dimensional tables with attributes and tuples, while the hierarchical model structures data in a tree configuration. The ER model views data as entities and relationships between entities.
The document discusses data modeling and entity relationship diagrams. It defines data modeling as the process of defining and analyzing data requirements to support business processes. It describes the different types of data models including conceptual, logical, and physical models. It also explains the key components of entity relationship diagrams including entities, attributes, relationships, cardinality, and notation. The document provides an example of using an ERD to model a scenario involving departments, supervisors, employees, and projects.
NORMALIZATION - BIS 1204: Data and Information Management I Mukalele Rogers
The document provides information about normalization during database design. It discusses:
1) Normalization is a technique used to design relational databases that minimizes data redundancy and ensures relations contain only necessary attributes with logical relationships.
2) Normalization can be used as both a bottom-up and validation technique during database design. The goal is to create well-designed relations that meet user requirements.
3) Functional dependencies describe relationships between attributes and are important for normalization. Normalization decomposes relations into smaller, less redundant relations through a multi-step process of normal forms.
The document discusses a Faculty Development Program (FDP) on database management systems that was held on December 6, 2018 at the University College of Engineering Tindivanam in Tindivanam, India. The FDP covered recent research perspectives in different database management systems and the importance of database management systems in Digital India. It was conducted by Dr. A. Karthirvel, Professor and Head of the Computer Science and Engineering Department at MNM Jain Engineering College in Chennai.
The document discusses the history of database management and database models through 6 generations from 1900 to present. It describes the evolution from early manual record keeping systems to current big data technologies. Key database models discussed include hierarchical, network, relational, object-oriented, and dimensional models. The document also covers topics like data warehousing and data mining.
The document discusses key concepts of relational databases including:
1. Relational databases organize data into tables with records and fields and allow for defining relationships between tables.
2. Tables represent relations with rows as tuples and columns as attributes.
3. Common operations on relations include select, project, join, union, intersection and difference which allow querying and manipulating the data.
4. The document provides examples of designing database tables to model real-world entities and relationships. Primary keys are used to uniquely identify rows.
This document provides an overview of different data models, including object-based models like the entity-relationship model and object-oriented model, and record-based models like the relational, network, and hierarchical models. It describes the key features of each model, such as how data and relationships are represented, and highlights some advantages and disadvantages. The presentation is intended to guide students in understanding different approaches to database design and logical data modeling.
This document discusses data modeling and design approaches. It defines key terms like database, data model, and schema. It describes common data models like hierarchical, relational, network, object-oriented, and entity-relationship models. It also compares data models and schemas, noting that data models define data structure while schemas represent data models using database syntax. Finally, it outlines top-down and bottom-up design approaches, where top-down starts generally and moves to specifics while bottom-up begins with specifics and moves generally.
Data is a collection of distinct pieces of information that can be stored and processed digitally. A database is an organized collection of structured data stored digitally. A database management system (DBMS) is software that allows users to define, create, maintain and control access to a database. Common DBMSs include Oracle, SQL Server, and MySQL. Relational databases organize data into tables with rows and columns and allow users to define relationships between tables. Keys like primary keys and foreign keys help define these relationships and uniquely identify rows. Structured Query Language (SQL) is used to communicate with databases to perform operations like querying and updating data.
Database systems can be summarized in 3 sentences:
A database system consists of a database, database management system (DBMS), and users. The database contains organized data, the DBMS manages access to the data and provides utilities for querying and updating it, and users interact with the system for data entry, retrieval, and administration. Over time, database models have evolved from hierarchical and network models to the prevalent relational model to better support data sharing and querying across systems.
The document discusses several books on database management systems and their authors. It also provides an overview of key concepts in DBMS including what a database and DBMS are, the purpose of database systems, levels of abstraction, instances and schemas, data independence, different data models, database languages, the roles of database administrators and users.
Muhammad Sharif database administrator SKMCHRC Lahore, Pakistan
I'm writing this book. I'm Muhammad Sharif write a Database systems handbook about dbms, rdbms database management system abrivations.
I have core knowledge of database systems and its structure and database system administration too.
I thanks to all my reader who ack.
Thanks
DBA Muhammad Sharif database systems
#MUHAMMAD SHARIF DATABASE SYSTEMS HANDBOOK DBA
A relational database contains a collection of tables that are linked together through defined relationships. Each table holds information about an entity or object and consists of rows called tuples and columns called attributes that make up the data about that entity. Relationships between entities are represented by links between tables and can take the form of one-to-one, one-to-many, or many-to-many. Constraints define rules for the data in tables to ensure accuracy and reliability. Indexes help optimize database performance by enabling faster data retrieval and queries. Views allow users to access structured data from one or more tables through a predefined SQL query.
This document discusses different data models used in database management systems including record-based, relational, network, hierarchical, and entity-relationship models. It provides details on each model such as how data is organized. A record-based model uses fixed-length records and fields. The relational model organizes data into tables with rows and columns. The network model links entities through multiple paths in a graph structure. The hierarchical model arranges data in a tree structure. Finally, the entity-relationship model views the real world as entities and relationships between entities.
This document provides an overview of databases and database management systems (DBMS). It discusses what a database is, components of a database system like users and applications, and examples of DBMS like MySQL and Oracle. It also summarizes key database concepts such as data models, relationships between data using keys, and relational algebra operations for querying databases.
This document provides an introduction to relational database management systems (RDBMS). It discusses the key components and functions of an RDBMS including data storage and retrieval, transaction support, concurrency control, and authorization services. Various database concepts are explained such as the relational model, normalization forms, indexing techniques like B+ trees and hashing, and concurrency control methods like locking. Transaction properties like atomicity, consistency, isolation, and durability are also covered. Join operations and views are defined. The document provides a high-level overview of fundamental RDBMS concepts.
ICS Part 2 Computer Science Short NotesAbdul Haseeb
The document provides an overview of basic data concepts including data, data capturing, data manipulation, information, fields, records, files, databases, data integrity, and database management systems. It defines key terms and provides examples. The three main types of files are described as master files, backup files, and transaction files. Database components are listed as data, hardware, software, and personnel.
The document defines key concepts related to database management systems (DBMS) including what a DBMS is, the different levels of database architecture (external, conceptual, internal), data definition language (DDL), normalization, entity relationship (ER) modeling, and database normalization forms. It provides examples to illustrate database concepts and discusses the advantages of using a DBMS compared to traditional file management systems.
This document provides an overview of different data models, including object-based models like the entity-relationship model and object-oriented model, and record-based models like the relational, network, and hierarchical models. It describes the key features of each model, such as how data and relationships are represented, and highlights some of their advantages and disadvantages. The presentation aims to guide students in understanding different approaches to database design and modeling.
This Presentation would make you understand the Fundamentals of Database Design, Data Models (Conceptual, Logical & Physical), ERD, ERM. Also, have real-life examples and case study to understand better.
Data Models In Database Management SystemAmad Ahmad
This document discusses different types of data models used in database management systems (DBMS), including record-based, relational, network, hierarchical, and entity-relationship (ER) models. It provides an overview of key concepts like data, information, databases, and data models. For each model type, it describes how data is organized and represented. For example, it explains that the relational model organizes data into two-dimensional tables with attributes and tuples, while the hierarchical model structures data in a tree configuration. The ER model views data as entities and relationships between entities.
The document discusses data modeling and entity relationship diagrams. It defines data modeling as the process of defining and analyzing data requirements to support business processes. It describes the different types of data models including conceptual, logical, and physical models. It also explains the key components of entity relationship diagrams including entities, attributes, relationships, cardinality, and notation. The document provides an example of using an ERD to model a scenario involving departments, supervisors, employees, and projects.
NORMALIZATION - BIS 1204: Data and Information Management I Mukalele Rogers
The document provides information about normalization during database design. It discusses:
1) Normalization is a technique used to design relational databases that minimizes data redundancy and ensures relations contain only necessary attributes with logical relationships.
2) Normalization can be used as both a bottom-up and validation technique during database design. The goal is to create well-designed relations that meet user requirements.
3) Functional dependencies describe relationships between attributes and are important for normalization. Normalization decomposes relations into smaller, less redundant relations through a multi-step process of normal forms.
The document discusses a Faculty Development Program (FDP) on database management systems that was held on December 6, 2018 at the University College of Engineering Tindivanam in Tindivanam, India. The FDP covered recent research perspectives in different database management systems and the importance of database management systems in Digital India. It was conducted by Dr. A. Karthirvel, Professor and Head of the Computer Science and Engineering Department at MNM Jain Engineering College in Chennai.
The document discusses the history of database management and database models through 6 generations from 1900 to present. It describes the evolution from early manual record keeping systems to current big data technologies. Key database models discussed include hierarchical, network, relational, object-oriented, and dimensional models. The document also covers topics like data warehousing and data mining.
The document discusses key concepts of relational databases including:
1. Relational databases organize data into tables with records and fields and allow for defining relationships between tables.
2. Tables represent relations with rows as tuples and columns as attributes.
3. Common operations on relations include select, project, join, union, intersection and difference which allow querying and manipulating the data.
4. The document provides examples of designing database tables to model real-world entities and relationships. Primary keys are used to uniquely identify rows.
This document provides an overview of different data models, including object-based models like the entity-relationship model and object-oriented model, and record-based models like the relational, network, and hierarchical models. It describes the key features of each model, such as how data and relationships are represented, and highlights some advantages and disadvantages. The presentation is intended to guide students in understanding different approaches to database design and logical data modeling.
This document discusses data modeling and design approaches. It defines key terms like database, data model, and schema. It describes common data models like hierarchical, relational, network, object-oriented, and entity-relationship models. It also compares data models and schemas, noting that data models define data structure while schemas represent data models using database syntax. Finally, it outlines top-down and bottom-up design approaches, where top-down starts generally and moves to specifics while bottom-up begins with specifics and moves generally.
Data is a collection of distinct pieces of information that can be stored and processed digitally. A database is an organized collection of structured data stored digitally. A database management system (DBMS) is software that allows users to define, create, maintain and control access to a database. Common DBMSs include Oracle, SQL Server, and MySQL. Relational databases organize data into tables with rows and columns and allow users to define relationships between tables. Keys like primary keys and foreign keys help define these relationships and uniquely identify rows. Structured Query Language (SQL) is used to communicate with databases to perform operations like querying and updating data.
Database systems can be summarized in 3 sentences:
A database system consists of a database, database management system (DBMS), and users. The database contains organized data, the DBMS manages access to the data and provides utilities for querying and updating it, and users interact with the system for data entry, retrieval, and administration. Over time, database models have evolved from hierarchical and network models to the prevalent relational model to better support data sharing and querying across systems.
The document discusses several books on database management systems and their authors. It also provides an overview of key concepts in DBMS including what a database and DBMS are, the purpose of database systems, levels of abstraction, instances and schemas, data independence, different data models, database languages, the roles of database administrators and users.
Muhammad Sharif database administrator SKMCHRC Lahore, Pakistan
I'm writing this book. I'm Muhammad Sharif write a Database systems handbook about dbms, rdbms database management system abrivations.
I have core knowledge of database systems and its structure and database system administration too.
I thanks to all my reader who ack.
Thanks
DBA Muhammad Sharif database systems
#MUHAMMAD SHARIF DATABASE SYSTEMS HANDBOOK DBA
Muhammad Sharif database administrator SKMCHRC Lahore, Pakistan
I'm writing this book. I'm Muhammad Sharif write a Database systems handbook about dbms, rdbms database management system abrivations.
I have core knowledge of database systems and its structure and database system administration too.
I thanks to all my reader who ack.
#MUHAMMAD SHARIF DATABASE SYSTEMS HANDBOOK DBA
Muhammad Sharif database administrator SKMCHRC Lahore, Pakistan
I'm writing this book. I'm Muhammad Sharif write a Database systems handbook about dbms, rdbms database management system abrivations.
I have core knowledge of database systems and its structure and database system administration too.
I thanks to all my reader who ack.
#MUHAMMAD SHARIF DATABASE SYSTEMS HANDBOOK DBA
Muhammad Sharif database administrator SKMCHRC Lahore, Pakistan
I'm writing this book. I'm Muhammad Sharif write a Database systems handbook about dbms, rdbms database management system abrivations.
I have core knowledge of database systems and its structure and database system administration too.
I thanks to all my reader who ack.
A database management system (DBMS) is a collection of programs that enables users to create and maintain databases and control all access to them. The primary goal of a DBMS is to provide an environment that is both convenient and efficient for users to retrieve and store information.
This document provides an overview of 18 chapters on database systems and management. It begins with a dedication by the author Muhammad Sharif and then outlines each of the 18 chapters, which cover topics such as data types, data models, database design, normalization, transactions, relational algebra, indexing, security, and Oracle database administration. The document also includes acknowledgments thanking contributors and reviewers.
Database Systems Handbook Dbms Rdbms by Muhammad Sharif
This is my Database systems book having all basic to advance know.
It included all topics by chapter wise.
It will help you lots to learn database sytems and management.
Database management system | Database systems | dbms| rdbms| database management systems handbook | RDBMS & DBMS Handbook
By MUHAMMAD SHARIF
DBA SKM
APEX MISSION GROUP
TECHNOITSCHOOL
This document outlines the contents of a handbook on database systems. It is divided into 18 chapters covering topics such as data types, data models, database design, normalization, transactions, and security. It also provides introductions to key database concepts like data, records, files, metadata, DBMS, and data architectures. The document discusses the history of databases from flat files to modern systems and outlines some advantages of the ANSI-SPARC architecture such as abstraction and separation of logical and physical structures.
This document provides an overview of database theory and concepts. It defines a database as a collection of logically related data, and a schema as the overall design of a database. It also defines a database management system (DBMS) as a system that allows users to define, create, maintain and control access to a database. Key concepts discussed include the different types of entity relationships, what constitutes a relational database, and other relational database concepts such as attributes, domains, and primary keys.
Muhammad Sharif (Database systems handbook)database administrator SKMCHRC Lahore, Pakistan
I'm writing this book. I'm Muhammad Sharif write a Database systems handbook about dbms, rdbms database management system abrivations.
I have core knowledge of database systems and its structure and database system administration too.
I thanks to all my reader who ack.
Thanks
Muhammad Sharif Database systems handbook
This Database management system DBMS is written by Muhammad Sharif Software Engineer SKMCHRC Lahore
It include RDBMS and File system contents and Database system to advance Databases like DBA Concepts.
This document outlines the table of contents for a book on database systems and management. It includes 18 chapters covering topics like data modeling, database design, normalization, transactions, and Oracle database administration. The author dedicates the book to readers who inspire their work. An acknowledgments section thanks reviewers and credits God for their professor's guidance.
I'm Muhammad Sharif Software engineer, SKMCHRC Lahore, Database systems handbook is written by Muhammad Sharif is pure RDBMS having all core knowledge of databases and its related subjects.
The correct statement is D.
DML commands:
- INSERT - Used to insert new rows into tables.
- UPDATE - Used to modify existing data in a table.
- DELETE - Used to remove existing rows from a table.
- SELECT - Used to retrieve data from one or more tables.
So to add a primary key constraint on the student_id column of the students table, we need to use the ALTER TABLE command with ADD CONSTRAINT and specify the column in parentheses as shown in option D.
The other options are incorrect because:
A) Does not specify a constraint name
B) Does not enclose column name in parentheses
C) Tries
This document summarizes key aspects of electrocardiogram (ECG) analysis including rhythm, heart rate variability, axis determination, key waves and intervals like P, QRS, and QT. It also discusses common artifacts that can appear on ECGs like power line interference, motion artifacts, and baseline drift. Rhythm is analyzed and heart rate variability is categorized from very high to poor. Axis is determined using methods like the quadrant or three lead analyses. Intervals like PR and QT are examined.
Undergraduate Topics in Computer Science, Concise Computer Vision Reinhard Klette An Introduction
into Theory and Algorithms:
FEATURE DETECTION AND OBJECT DETECTION - Localization, Classification, and Evaluation - Descriptors, Classifiers and Learning
Image Processing, Facial Expression
Implicit and explicit methods are used to insert null or empty values into columns. Relational operators compare values and return true or false based on equal, not equal, greater than, less than comparisons. Logical operators return true if conditions joined by AND, OR, or NOT are met. Values can be sorted in ascending order based on their type as either lowest to highest numeric, alphabetical character, or earliest to latest date.
The document describes creating two partitioned tables. The first table book_17 is partitioned by range of the bid column into three partitions - p1 for bids less than 200, p2 for bids between 200 and 300, and p3 for bids between 300 and 500. The second table stud_89 is partitioned by list on the department column into two partitions - s1 for the departments of Maths and Phy, and s2 for the department of BCA. Some sample data is inserted into book_17 to demonstrate the partitions, with one row failing to insert as its value falls outside the partitions.
The document discusses how to create and modify Oracle tables using SQL. It describes how to use the CREATE TABLE statement to define a table's structure, columns, constraints, and storage parameters. It also explains how to view table metadata using data dictionary views, add comments to tables and columns, and alter existing tables by adding or modifying columns while following certain restrictions.
The document provides information on data definition language (DDL) concepts in Oracle databases including naming rules and conventions for tables and columns, data types, constraints, and default values. Some key points summarized:
- Table and column names can be 1-30 characters long using letters, numbers, $, _, and # but not spaces or hyphens. Names are stored in uppercase.
- Common data types include VARCHAR2, CHAR, NUMBER, DATE, LONG, and LOB types like CLOB and BLOB. Each has specific size and storage characteristics.
- Constraints like PRIMARY KEY, FOREIGN KEY, UNIQUE, CHECK, and NOT NULL are used to enforce data integrity rules and validate column values.
- Oracle is a popular client/server database management system based on the relational database model. It is capable of supporting thousands of users simultaneously and storing terabytes of data.
- Oracle Corporation is the second largest software company in the world. Their flagship product is the Oracle database, which is widely used by organizations for mission-critical applications.
- Oracle software can run in stand-alone, client/server, or multi-tier architectures. The database component provides high availability, fault tolerance, security and management tools.
This document discusses inventory problems and the economic order quantity (EOQ) model. It covers:
- Types of inventory costs and notations used in EOQ models.
- The basic EOQ model which assumes constant demand rate and minimizes total inventory costs. This model is used to determine the optimal order quantity.
- Extensions of the basic EOQ model which relax some assumptions, such as models allowing for finite replenishment rates, shortages, quantity discounts, etc.
- Examples demonstrating how to apply the EOQ model to determine optimal order quantity and total costs for different inventory situations.
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This document outlines the key concepts in game theory. It introduces two-person zero-sum games and discusses optimal strategies, including the maximin and minimax principles. A game has a saddle point solution when the maximin value for one player equals the minimax value for the other player, indicating their optimal strategies and the game's value.
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Why Operations Research?
Introduction
Origin of operations research
Definition of operations research
Characteristics of operations research
Role of operations research in decision-making
Methods of solving operations research problem
Phases in solving operations research problems
Typical problems in operations research
Scope of operations research
Why to study operations research
Nita H.Shah Ravi M. Gor Hardik Soni
Why Operations Research?
Introduction
Origin of operations research
Definition of operations research
Characteristics of operations research
Role of operations research in decision-making
Methods of solving operations research problem
Phases in solving operations research problems
Typical problems in operations research
Scope of operations research
Why to study operations research
Web Technology under CSS - Introduction, Advantages, Adding CSS, Browser Compatibility, CSS and Page Layout finally Selectors all are referred with Uttam K. Roy
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The document discusses different types of searching algorithms for lists. It describes linear/sequential search which searches the entire list sequentially to find a target. Binary search requires an ordered list and works by dividing the list in half on each step to search for the target. The document provides pseudocode for linear search and binary search algorithms. It also discusses variations of linear search like sentinel search and search of ordered lists. Binary search has better efficiency of O(log n) compared to O(n) for linear search.
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Literature Review Basics and Understanding Reference Management.pptxDr Ramhari Poudyal
Three-day training on academic research focuses on analytical tools at United Technical College, supported by the University Grant Commission, Nepal. 24-26 May 2024
2. DATA -
• WHAT IS DATA?
• WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY DATA?
• DEFINITION OF DATA.
• WHAT IS THE MEANING OF DATA?
• WHAT IS THE DATA AND HOW IT IS USED?
• WHAT IS THE WORD OF DATA?
தகவல்கள்
3. Plural
1640’s
English word
Transmissible and Storable Computer
Information
Datum (Singular/ neuter past participle) – To give
Latin word
1946’s
Other names
Information
Knowledge
Facts
Wisdom
Etc
4. WHO GAVE THE TERM DATA?
Claude Shannon (1916 – 2001)
“The father of information theory”
Paper published in 1948.
“An mathematician theory of communication”
He was American mathematician, Electrical Engineer,
Cryptographer
6. DATA
• In computing, data is information that has
been translated into a form that is efficient
for movement or processing.
• The facts describing an entity are known as
data
EXAMPL
E
College
Student1
Student_Id
Student_Name
…
….
Dat
a
7. ENTITY
–
ENTITIES
–
• A person, place, object, event or item is called entity.
• A single thing is a entity
• Each entity can be described by its characteristics, which are known as
attributes/column.
நிறுவனம்
நிறுவனங்கள்
11. ENTITY SET
-
• An entity set is a collection of related entities.
• An entity set is a set of same type of entities.
• An entity refers to any object.
நிறுவனம் ததொகுப்பு
Singular name
12. TYPES OF ENTITY SET
Entity Set
Strong
Entity Set
(SES)
Recursive
Entity Set
(RES)
Weak Entity
Set
(WES)
Composite Entity Set
(CES) or
Associative Entity Set
(AES)
SuperType and
SubType Entity
Set (SSES)
13. Strong Entity Set (SES) Weak Entity Set (WES)
It is an entity set that contains sufficient
attributes to uniquely identify all its entities.
It is an entity set that doesn’t contains
sufficient attributes to uniquely identify all
its entities.
A primary key exists for a SES. A primary key doesn’t exists for a WES.
However, it contains a partial key called as
a discriminator.
Discriminator can identify a group of entities
from the entity set.
A primary key represent underlined with
solid line.
A discriminator represent by underlined with
dashed line.
Another name: Regular entity set Another name: Identifying entity set
14. Strong Entity Set (SES) Weak Entity Set (WES)
A diamond symbol is used for
representing the relationship that exists
between two strong entity sets.
A double diamond symbol is used for
representing the relationship that exists
between the strong and weak entity sets and
this relationship is known as identifying
relationship.
15. Strong Entity Set (SES) Weak Entity Set (WES)
A single line is used for representing the
connection of the strong entity set with the
relationship set.
A double line is used for representing the
connection of the weak entity set with the
relationship set.
A double line is used for representing the
total participation of an entity set with the
relationship set.
Total participation may or may not exist in
the relationship.
Total participation always exists in the
identifying relationship.
18. BASE - அடித்தளம்
1717
Synonym -
Paracelsus
Chemist Louis
Lemery
French
Alchemical concept of
a
“Matrix” in alchemy
Proposed – Natural salts
grew as a result of a
universal acid mixing with
a matrix
19. BASE IN CHEMISTRY
• The ionic compounds that produce negative hydroxide (OH−) ions when dissolved in
water are called bases.
• Any substance that in water solution is slippery to the touch, tastes bitter, changes the
color of indicators (Turns red litmus paper blue), reacts with acids to form salts, and
promotes certain chemical reactions.
• A base is a substance that can neutralize the acid by reacting with hydrogen ions.
BASE IN COMPUTER SCIENCE
• A base is the available numbers in a numbering system.
• The most commonly known base is a base-10 numbering system or decimal numbers,
which are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8, and 9.
• Base when dealing with computers is the binary base-2, which only has the numbers 0
and 1.
20. DATABASE
-
தரவுத்தளம்
Edgar Frank "Ted" Codd
English Computer
Scientist
196
0
IBM
Charles
Bachman
Integrated Data Store or
IDS
First created
The history of databases is a
rich one, stretching as far
back as the advent of the
computer as we know it today.
24. RELATIONSHIPS
• The entities in a database are likely to interact with other entities.
• The interactions between the entity sets are called relationships or
• Relationships are interactions between entity sets.
• The interactions are described using active verbs.
26. RELATIONSHIPS
• The database design requires you to create entity sets, each describing a set of
related entities.
• The design also requires you to establish all the relationships between the entity
sets within the database.
• The different database management software packages handle the creation and
use of relationships in different manners.
27. TYPES OF RELATIONSHIP
• One-to-one (1:1)
• One-to-many (1:M or 1:N)
• Many-to-one (M:1 or N:1)
• Many-to-many (M:M or M:N)
28.
29. ONE-TO-ONE
An employee can work in at most one department, and a department can
have at most one employee.
34. DBMS
1960
Charles W. Bachman
Navigational databases Database Task Group (1971)
Common Business Oriented Language (COBOL)
CODASYL approach
Three techniques:
Using primary key
Moving relationships to one record from another
Scanning all records in sequential order
Edgar Codd 1970
A relationship model of data for large shared data links paper titled
• IMS 1973 (Michael Stonebraker and Eugene Wong) Worked at INGRES (Interactive
Graphics and Retrieval System)
• QUEL (Query Language) IBM develop to SQL in 1974 (SQL became ANSI and OSI
standards in 1986 1nd 1987)
• QUEL replaced Functional Query Language
35. • A database management system (DBMS) software package such as microsoft access,
visual fox pro, microsoft sql-server, or oracle.
• A user-developed and implemented database or databases that include tables, a
data dictionary, and other database objects.
• Custom applications such as data-entry forms, reports, queries, blocks, and
programs.
• Computer hardware personal computers, minicomputers, and mainframes in a
network environment.
• Software—an operating system and a network operating system.
• Personnel a database administrator, a database designer/analyst, a programmer,
and end users. Data are the raw materials.
• Information is processed, manipulated, collected, or organized data. The
information is produced when a user uses the applications to transform data
managed by the DBMS.
• The database system is utilized as a decision-making system and is also referred to
as an information system (IS).
• A DBMS based on the relational model is also known as a relational database
management system (RDBMS).
37. TYPES OF DBMS
• Hierarchical database systems
• Network database systems
• Object-oriented database systems
• No SQL or Non-relational databases
38. An RDBMS not only manages data but is also responsible for other important functions:
• It manages the data and relationships stored in the database. It creates a data dictionary as a user creates a database. The data
dictionary is a system structure that stores metadata (data about data).The metadata include table names, attribute names, data
types, physical space, relationships, and so on.
• It manages all day-to-day transactions.
• It performs bookkeeping duties, so the user has data independence at the application level. The applications do not have
information about data characteristics.
• It transforms logical data requests to match physical data structures. When a user requests data, the RDBMS searches through the
data dictionary, filters out unnecessary data, and displays the results in a readable and understandable form.
• It allows users to specify validation rules. For example, if only M and F are possible values for the attribute gender, users can set
validation rules to keep incorrect values from being accepted.
• It secures access through passwords, encryption, and restricted user rights.
• It provides backup and recovery procedures for physical security of data.
• It allows users to share data with data-locking capabilities.
• It provides import and export utilities to use data created in other database or spreadsheet software or to use data in other software.
• It enables users to join tables to view information stored in different tables within the database. The user is able to design a
database with less redundancy, which means fewer data-entry errors, fewer data corrections, better data integrity, and a more
efficient database.
39. RELATIONAL DATABASE MODEL
• The need for data is always present.
• The computer age, the need to represent data in an easy-to-understand, logical
form has led to many different models, such as the relational model, the
hierarchical model, the network model, and the object model.
• Because of its simplicity in design and ease in retrieval of data, the relational
database model has been very popular, especially in the personal computer
environment.
40. • Based on mathematical set theory
• Uses building block of the database
• The relation is represented by a two dimensional, flat structure known as a
table.
RELATION
41. TABLE
• The user does not have to know the mathematical details or the physical
aspects of the data, but the user views the data in a logical, two-dimensional
structure.
• The database system that manages a relational database environment is known
as a relational database management system (RDBMS).
• Some of the popular relational database systems are oracle9i by oracle
corporation, microsoft access 2000, and microsoft visual fox pro 6.0.
• A table is a matrix of rows and columns in which each row represents an entity
and each column represents an attribute.
• In other words, a table represents an entity set as per database theory, and it
represents a relation as per relational database theory. In daily practice, the
terms table, relation, and entity set are used interchangeably.
42. Relationship Database
Concepts
Equivalence Database Concepts
Relation
• Relation Schema
Table
A relation schema represents the name of the relation with its
attributes.
• Relation Instance
Relation instance is a finite set of tuples in the RDBMS system.
Relation instances never have duplicate tuples.
• Relation Key Every row has one, two or multiple attributes, which is called
relation key.
Table/Tables Table format
Tuple Row or Record
Cardinality Number of rows
Attribute Column or Field
Degree Number of columns
Domain Pool of legal values
43. TUPLE
• In relational terminology, a row is also referred to as a tuple.
• It rhymes with couple.
• It is easy to establish relationships between tables.
45. ATTRIBUTE
• Each column in a relation or a table corresponds to a column of the relation, and
each row corresponds to an entity.
46. DEGREE
• The number of columns in a table is called the degree of the relation.
47. DOMAIN
• The set of all possible values that a column may have is called the domain of
that column.
• Two domains are the same only if they have the same meaning and use.
52. KEY
• A key is a minimal set of columns used to uniquely define any row in a table.
• If a single column can be used to describe each row, there is no need to use two
columns.
53. TYPES OF KEY
• SUPER KEY
• CANDIDATE KEY
• PRIMARY KEY
• SIMPLE KEY
• COMPOUND KEY
• COMPOSITE PRIMARY KEY OR SINGLE AS COMPOSITE KEY
• SECONDARY KEY OR ALTERNATIVE KEY
• SURROGATE KEY
• FOREIGN KEY
54. Keys Explanation
Super A Super key is any combination of fields within a table that uniquely identifies each record within that
table.
Candidate A candidate is a subset of a super key.
A candidate key is a single field or the least combination of fields that uniquely identifies each record in
the table.
The least combination of fields distinguishes a candidate key from a super key.
Every table must have at least one candidate key but at the same time can have several.
Primary When a single column is used as a unique identifier.
A primary key is a candidate key that is most appropriate to be the main reference key for the table.
As its name suggests, it is the primary key of reference for the table and is used throughout the database
to help establish relationships with other tables.
As with any candidate key the primary key must contain unique values, must never be null and uniquely
identify each record in the table.
Simple Any of the keys described before (ie primary, secondary or foreign) may comprise one or more fields
Compound A compound key consists of more than one field to uniquely identify a record. A compound key is
distinguished from a composite key because each field, which makes up the primary key, is also a simple
key in its own right.
Composite When a combination of columns is used as a unique identifier
Secondary A table may have one or more choices for the primary key. Collectively these are known as candidate keys
as discuss earlier. One is selected as the primary key.
Surrogate If none of the columns is a candidate for the primary key in a table, sometimes database designers use an
extra column as a primary key instead of using a composite key.
55. ORACLE USE OF KEYS
• Oracle uses key words primary key to define a primary, composite or surrogate
key.
• In Oracle tables, only primary and foreign keys are define.
• Secondary key is not part of Oracle’s table structure, but it is column used in
search operations.
• Oracle’s data dictionary to find table keys and other table information.
56. INTEGRITY RULES
-
• In any database managed by an RDBMS, it is very important that the data in the
underlying tables be consistent. If consistency is compromised. The data are not
usable.
• TWO INTEGRITY RULES OF RELATIONAL MODEL
• Entity Integrity
• Referential Integrity
ஒருமைப்பொடு விதிகள்
57. NULL VALUE
• It means a value that is not known, not entered, not defined, or not applicable.
• A zero or a space is not considered to be a null value.
58. Entity Integrity – நிறுவனத்தின் ஒருமைப்பொடு Referential Integrity - மேற்ம ோளிட்ட மேர்மே
No column in a primary key may be null. Each
entity has unique value of primary key.
A foreign key value may be a null value or it must
exist as a value of a primary key in the referenced
table
The primary key provides the means of uniquely
identifying a row or an entity.
It is a property of data which, when satisfied, requires
every value of one attribute (column) of a relation
(table) to exist as a value of another attribute in a
different (another or same) relation (table).
If the primary key value is a null value in a row, we
do not have enough information about the row to
uniquely identify it.
If a value in the foreign key column,cross references
the referenced primary key column in the other table
to confirm the existence of such a value.
The RDBMS software strictly follows the entity
integrity rule and does not allow users to enter a
row without a unique value in the primary key
column
Referential integrity is not fully supported by all
commercially available systems, but Oracle supports it
religiously! Oracle does not allow you to declare a
foreign key if it does not exist as a primary key 8 in
another table. It allows you to leave the foreign key
column value as a null.
64. THEORETICAL RELATIONAL
LANGUAGES -
• E. F. Codd suggested two theoretical relational languages
• Relational Algebra Procedural Language
• Relational Calculus Non – procedural language
ககொட்பொட்டு ததொடர்புமடய தைொழிகள்
65. • Third-generation high-level compiler languages can be used to manipulate data
in a table, but they can only work with one row at a time.
• In contrast, the relational languages can work on the entire table or on a group
of rows.
• The multiple-row manipulation does not even need a looping structure.
• The relational languages provide more power with a very little coding.
• Codd proposed these languages to embed them in other host languages for
more processing capability and more sophisticated application development.
• In the database systems available today, nonprocedural structured query
language (SQL) is used as a data-manipulation 9 sublanguage.
• The theoretical languages have provided the basis for SQL.
66. RELATIONAL ALGEBRA
-
• Relational algebra is a procedural language, because the user accomplishes
desired results by using a set of operations in a sequence.
• It uses set operations on tables to produce new resulting tables.
• These resulting tables are then used for subsequent sequential operations.
• In oracle, all operation names are not actually used as programming terms, and
most of these operations do not create a new resulting table, as shown in the
following examples using relational algebra.
ததொடர்புமடய இயற்கணிதம்
68. UNION
• The union of two tables results in retrieval of all rows that are in one or both
tables.
• The duplicate rows are eliminated from the resulting table.
• The resulting table does not contain two rows with identical data values.
• There is a basic requirement to perform a union operation on two tables:
• Both tables must have the same degree.
• The domains of the corresponding columns in two tables must be same.
• Such tables are said to be union compatible.
• In mathematical set theory, a union can be performed on any two sets, but in
relational algebra, a union can be performed only on union-compatible tables.
73. INTERSECTION
• The intersection of two tables produces a table with rows that are in both
tables. The two tables must be union compatible to perform an intersection on
them.
• The intersection will give us the projects that appear in the year 2002 and 2003.
76. DIFFERENCE
• The difference of two tables produces a table with rows that are present in the
first table but not in the second table.
• The difference can be performed on union-compatible tables only.
• Symbol ( – ) used in the same previous year.
• In mathematics, A – B is not equal to B – A.
• If we perform the same operation to find projects from the year 2003 didn’t
exist in 2002.
78. PROJECTION -
• The projection operation allows us to create a table based on desirable columns
from all existing columns in a table.
• The undesired columns are ignored.
• The projection operation returns the "vertical slices" of a table.
• The projection is indicated by including the table name and a list of desired
columns
திட்டம்
80. SELECTION
• The selection operation selects rows from a table based on a condition or
conditions.
• The conditional operators (=, <>, >, >=, <=) and the logical operators (AND,
OR, NOT) are used along with columns and values to create conditions.
• The selection operation returns "horizontal slices" from a table.
• The resulting table has the same number of columns as the original table but
fewer rows.
• The rows that satisfy the given condition are returned.
82. PRODUCT
• A product of two tables is a combination everything in both tables.
• It is also known as a cartesian product or cross join.
• It can cause huge results with big tables.
• If the first table has x rows and the second table has y rows, the resulting
product has x • y rows.
• If the first table has m columns and the second table has n columns, the
resulting product has m + n columns.
• Two tables with one column each and perform the product (.) operation.
84. ASSIGNMENT
• This operation creates a new table from existing tables.
• It throughout all the other operations.
• Assignment (=) gives us an ability to name new tables that are based on other
tables.
• Assignment is not an oracle term.
86. JOIN
• The join is one of the most important operations because of its ability to get
related data from a number of tables.
• The join is based on common set of values, which does not have to have the
same name in both tables but does have to have the same domain in both
tables.
• When a join is based on equality of value, it is known as a natural join.
• The join operation is an overhead on the system, because it is accomplished
using a series of operations.
87. TYPES OF JOIN
• INNER JOINS
• THETA JOIN
• EQUI JOIN
• NATURAL JOIN
• OUTER JOIN
• LEFT OUTER JOIN
• RIGHT OUTER JOIN
• FULL OUTER JOIN
88. INNER JOIN
• In an inner join, only those tuples that satisfy the matching criteria are included
89. OUTER JOIN
• In an outer join, along with tuples that satisfy the matching criteria, we also
include some or all tuples that do not match the criteria.
90.
91.
92.
93. DIVISION
• The division operation is the most difficult operation to comprehend.
• It is not as simple as division in mathematics.
• In relational algebra, it identifies rows in one table that have a certain
relationship to all rows in another table.
94.
95.
96. RELATIONAL CALCULUS -
• It is an nonprocedural language.
• The programmer specifies that data requirements, and the system generates the
operations needed to produce a table with the required data.
• Result = (Column list) : Expression
• The list of columns is on the left of the colon, and the expressions (and
conditions) are on the right.
ததொடர்புமடய கணக்கீடு
97.
98. TUPLE RELATIONAL CALCULUS (TRC)
• The tuple relational calculus is specified to select the tuples in a relation. In TRC,
filtering variable uses the tuples of a relation.
• The result of the relation can have one or more tuples.
• Notation:
• {T | P (T)} or {T | condition (T)}
where
• T is the resulting tuples
• P(T) is the condition used to fetch T.
99. DOMAIN RELATIONAL CALCULUS (DRC)
• It is equivalence to tuple calculus and to relational algebra.
• The language called QBE (query-by-example) that is related to domain calculus was
developed almost concurrently to SQL at IBM research, Yorktown heights, New York.
• The second form of relation is known as domain relational calculus. In domain relational
calculus, filtering variable uses the domain of attributes.
• Domain relational calculus uses the same operators as tuple calculus. It uses logical
connectives ∧ (and), ∨ (or) and ┓ (not).
• It uses existential (∃) and universal quantifiers (∀) to bind the variable.
Notation:
• { A1, a2, a3, ..., an | P (a1, a2, a3, ... ,an)}
where
• A1, a2 are attributes
P stands for formula built by inner attributes
100. SUMMARY
• The nine operations provide users with a sufficient set of operations to work
with the relational databases.
• Some of the operations are combinations of other operations, in the case of the
join operation, but such operations are very useful in actual practice.
• A relational database is an electronic data repository that is supposed to satisfy
user’s data request correctly, quickly an efficiently.
101. DATA MODELING
• A model is a simplified version of real-life, complex objects.
• Databases are complex, and data modeling is a tool to represent the various
components and their relation-ships.
• The entity-relationship (E-R) model is a very popular modeling tool among
many such tools available today.
• Many tools are available for data modeling with E-R.
• All tools have some variations in representation of components.
• An excellent communication tool.
• A simple graphical representation of data.
102. • The E-R model uses E-R diagrams (ERD) for graphical representation of the
database components.
• An entity (or an entity set) is represented by a rectangle.
• The name of the entity (set) is written within the rectangle.
• Some tools prefer to use uppercase letters only for entities.
• The name of an entity set is a singular noun.
For example, EMPLOYEE, CUSTOMER, and DEPARTMENT are singular entity set
names.
• A line represents relationship between the two entities.
• The name of the relationship is an active verb in lowercase letters.
For example, works; manages, and employs are active verbs.
• Passive verbs can be used, but active verbs are preferable
103.
104. • The types of relationships (1:1, 1:M, and M:N) between entities are called connectivity or
multiplicity.
• The connectivity is shown with vertical or angled lines next to each entity.
For example, an EMPLOYEE supervises a DEPARTMENT, and a DEPARTMENT has one EMPLOYEE
supervisor.
• A DIVISION contains many FACULTY members, but a FACULTY works for one DIVISION.
• An INVOICE contains many items, and an ITEM can be in more than one INVOICE.
• The relationship between two entities can be given using the lower and upper limits.
• This information is called the cardinality.
• The cardinality is written next to each entity in the form (n, m), where n is the minimum
number and m is the maximum number.
For example, (1,1) next to EMPLOYEE means that an employee can supervise a minimum of
one and a maximum of one department.
• Similarly, (1,1) next to DEPARTMENT says that one and only one employee supervises the
department.
105.
106. • In reality, corporations set rules for the minimum and maximum values for cardinality.
• A corporation may decide that a department must have a minimum of 10 employees and a
maximum of 25 employees, which results in cardinality of (10,25).
• A college decides that a computer-science course section must have at minimum 5 students to
recover the cost incurred and at maximum 35 students, because the computer lab contains
only 35 terminals.
• An employee can be part of zero or more than one department, and an item may not be in any
invoice.
• These types of decisions are known as business rules.
• The above E-R diagram with added cardinality.
• In real life, it is possible to have an entity that is not related to another entity at all times.
• The relationship becomes optional in such a case. I
For example of a video rental store. A customer can rent video movies. In this case. There are
times when the customer has not rented any movie, and there are times when the customer has
rented one or more movies.
• Similarly, there can be a movie in the database that is or is not rented 15 at a particular time.
These are called optional relationships and are shown with a small circle next to the optional
108. • In relational databases, many-to-many (M:N) relationships are allowed, but they
are not easy to implement.
• For example, an invoice has many items. And an item can be in many invoices.
• Refer to the INVOICE and ITEM relationship, at this point, you will he introduced
to the relational schema, a graphical representation of tables, their column
names, key components, and relations between the primary key in one table
and the foreign key in another.
• We will also see the decomposition of an M:N relationship into two 1:M
relationships. The decomposition from M:N to 1:M involves a third entity, known
as a composite entity or an associative entity.
• The composite entity is created with the primary key from both tables with M:N
relationships.
• The new entity has a composite key, which is a combination of primary keys
from the original two entities. In the E-R diagram.
• A composite entity is drawn as a diamond within a rectangle.
109.
110. • The composite entity has a composite primary key with two columns, each of them being
foreign keys referencing the other two entities in the database.
• For example, the foreign key INVOICENO in the INVITEM table references the INVOICENO
column in the INVOICE table, and the foreign key ITEMNO in the INVITEM table references the
ITEMNO column in the ITEM table.
• In a database, there are entities that cannot exist by themselves.
• Such entities are known as weak entities.
• We will be introduced to two different sample databases. In the employee database of that
chapter, there is an entity called EMPLOYEE with employees' demographic information and
another entity called DEPENDENT with information about each employee's dependents.
• The DEPENDENT entity cannot exist by itself.
• There are no dependents for an employee who does not exist.
• In other words, you need the existence of an employee for his or her dependent to exist in the
database.
• The weak entities are shown by double-lined rectangles
111.
112. • Simple attributes – attributes that cannot be subdivided; for example, last name,
city, or gender.
• Composite attributes — attributes that can be subdivided, into atomic form.
For example, a full name can be subdivided into the last name, first name, and
middle initial.
• Single-valued attributes — attributes with a single value; for example, employee
ID, social security number, or date of birth.
• Multivalued attributes — attributes with multiple values
For example, degree codes or course registration. The multivalued attributes
have to be given special consideration. They can be entered into one attribute
with a value separator mark, or they can be entered in separate attributes with
names like course1, course2, course3, and so on. Alternatively, a separate,
composite entity can be created.