This presentation investigates approaches to enhancing critical thinking in the 21st century. The use of philosophy, P4C and epistemology are examined. The focus here is on critical thinking enhancement in high schools.

1. CRITICAL
THINKING IN THE
21ST CENTURY
Associate Professor David R Cole
Centre for Educational Research, UWS

2. Structure of the Talk
 Definition of Critical Thinking (CT)
 Recent history of CT – the Figuring Mind
 CT and Socratic method
 CT and philosophy
 CT, cognition and metacognition
 Differences between CT & CCT
 Stand-alone or embedded subject? The Essential Learnings (Tasmania)
 How to encourage CT in the classroom
 Strategies for CT practice …

3. Definition of Critical Thinking

4. Recent history of CT
 Ed Glaser’s , An Experiment in the
Development of Critical Thinking (1941)
 Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking
Appraisal
 Max Black’s, Critical Thinking (1946)

5. The Figuring Mind

6. CT and Socratic method
 Socratic method: also known as method of elenchus, elenctic method, or Socratic
debate, is named after the classical Greek philosopher Socrates. It is a form of
inquiry and discussion between individuals, based on asking and answering
questions to stimulate critical thinking and to illuminate ideas …
 Used in P4C: Children are taught how to create their own philosophical questions.
They then choose one question that is the focus of a philosophical enquiry, or
dialogue. For example the question might be: ‘is it ever ok to steal? ’
 The teacher, as facilitator, supports the children in their thinking, reasoning and
questioning, as well as the way the children speak and listen to each other in the
dialogue. After the enquiry, the children and facilitator reflect on the quality of the
thinking, reasoning and participation, and suggest how they could improve; either as
individuals or as a group (community).

7. CT and philosophy
All philosophers have used CT, however,
CT is not a history of philosophy course :
Empiricism: the theory that all knowledge
is based on experience derived from the
senses. Stimulated by the rise of
experimental science, it developed in the
17th and 18th centuries, expounded in
particular by John Locke, George
Berkeley, and David Hume
Rationalism: the theory that reason rather
than experience is the foundation of
certainty in knowledge

8. CT, cognition and metacognition
CT is developed through cognition and
metacognitive strategies in and across the
subject areas …
Research indicates that students can
learn to engage in “meta-cognition”
(thinking about thinking) if they are
regularly asked self-assessment
questions, which require reflection on
their own thought processes. When
students learn to routinely ask themselves
these questions, the depth and quality of
their thinking are enhanced (Resnick,
1986)

9. Differences between CT and CCT
The Australian Curriculum
includes the cross-curricula
capacity of Critical and Creative
Thinking (ACARA, 2012)

10. Stand-alone or embedded subject?
The Theory of Knowledge
subject is taught across the
curriculum by the IBO and is
included in every other subject
through ‘ToK links’.
Critical thinking only happens
when students have sufficient
knowledge/confidence/skill to
enter into debate.
CT is not only epistemology.

11. The Essential Learnings (Tasmania)

12. How to encourage CT in the classroom?
 Summarize or put into their own words what the teacher or another student has said.
 Elaborate on what they have said.
 Relate the issue or content to their own knowledge and experience.
 Give examples to clarify or support what they have said.
 Make connections between related concepts.
 Restate the instructions or assignment in their own words.
 State the question at issue.
 Describe to what extent their point of view on the issue is different from or similar to the point of view of the instructor, other
students, the author, etc.
 Take a few minutes to write down any of the above.
 Write down the most pressing question on their mind at this point. The instructor then uses the above tactics to help students
reason through the questions.
 Discuss any of the above with a partner and then participate in a group discussion facilitated by the instructor.
 Critical Thinking web site (2012)

13. Strategies for CT practice
 Promoting interaction among students as they learn - Learning in a group setting often
helps each member achieve more.
 Asking open-ended questions that do not assume the "one right answer" - Critical
thinking is often exemplified best when the problems are inherently ill-defined and do not
have a "right" answer. Open-ended questions also encourage students to think and
respond creatively, without fear of giving the "wrong" answer.
 Allowing sufficient time for students to reflect on the questions asked or problems posed
- Critical thinking seldom involves snap judgments; therefore, posing questions and
allowing adequate time before soliciting responses helps students understand that they
are expected to deliberate and to ponder, and that the immediate response is not
always the best response.
 Teaching for transfer - The skills for critical thinking should "travel well." They generally
will do so only if teachers provide opportunities for students to see how a newly
acquired skill can apply to other situations and to the student's own experience
 Potts, 1994

15. References
 ACARA (2012). General Capabilities in the Australian Curriculum. Available at:
http://www.acara.edu.au accessed 11/2/2014 ― (Critical and creative thinking): pp.
53-63.
 Black, M. (1946). Critical Thinking: An Introduction to Logic and Scientific Method.
New York: Prentice-Hall.
 Critical Thinking web site (2012). http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/tactics-that-
encourage-active-learning/468
 Glaser, E.M. (1941). An Experiment in the Development of Critical Thinking, NY,
Teacher’s College: Columbia University.
 Potts, Bonnie (1994). Strategies for teaching critical thinking. Practical Assessment,
Research & Evaluation, 4(3). Retrieved June 1, 2015 from
http://PAREonline.net/getvn.asp?v=4&n=3
 Resnick, L. B. (1986). Education and learning to think. Special Report. Pittsburgh:
University of Pittsburgh, Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education.