The document discusses several theories of how people learn, including: - Students learn best when their prior knowledge is engaged and misconceptions are addressed. Hands-on, concrete experiences are important for learning. - For learning to transfer to new contexts, students need deep conceptual understanding, not just memorization of facts. They must organize knowledge in a way that facilitates application. - Metacognition, or reflecting on one's own thinking, allows students to take control of their own learning. Teachers should use strategies to help students process information and reflect on their learning.

1. How Do People Learn
(Science)?

2. Objectives
 Discuss major theories of learning and relate
them to the learning of science.
 Explain how students’ prior knowledge can
affect science learning.
 Give an operational definition of
constructivism.
 Compare constructivist teaching methods
with conventional teaching methods.

3. Information Overload
 Human knowledge is currently doubling every
6 months.*
 We can’t teach it all.
*William J. Clinton. Remarks by the President to the National
Association of Attorneys General. March 12, 1998. (retrieved 23 Dec.
2004).

4. A new definition of knowledge…
 …the meaning of “knowing has shifted from
being able to remember and repeat
information to being able to find and use it.”
(Herbert Simon, Nobel laureate, 1996)

5. What Current Research Says
 Key findings were drawn from cognitive
theory– about how people think, brain
physiology – how the brain in made and
works, and educational research – how
students change in regard to classroom
practice.
Bransford, Brown, & Cockling, 2000

6. Key Finding #1
 Students come to the classroom with
preconceptions about how the world works. If
their initial understanding is not engaged, they
may fail to grasp the new concepts and
information that they are taught, or they may
learn them for purposes of a test but revert to
their preconceptions outside the classroom.
Bransford, Brown, & Cockling, 2000

7. What does this mean for science
teaching?
 Students have naïve
conceptions/misconceptions that MUST be
dealt with.
 something a person knows and believes that
does not match what is known to be
scientifically correct.
 If misconceptions are not corrected, new
knowledge will either be ignored or incorrectly
understood.

8. Piaget
 People do not just acquire knowledge; they
“build meaning.”
 Once those meaning structures have been
built, new information must somehow be
worked into the old structures.
 This can happen two ways: If the new
information “fits” the old structure, it is
assimilated. If it doesn’t fit the old knowledge
structure must be changed to
“accommodated,” which can be difficult
and/or painful.

9. Examples of misconceptions
 The Sun goes around the Earth once every
day.
 Babies come from the mother’s stomach.
 Seeds need light to germinate.
 Fluttering leaves makes the wind blow.
 We can see in the dark.

10. Discrepant Event (cognitive
disequilibrium)
 Heavy things sink.
 Bowling balls are heavy.
 Plop!!
 Whoops!!

11. What can we do about
misconceptions?
 Anticipate misconceptions
 Find out what students believe before
instruction
 KWL
 Think-alouds
 Drawings
 Mindmaps
 Create a cognitive disequilibrium

12. Key Finding #2
 To develop competence in an area of inquiry,
students must: (a) have a deep foundation of
factual knowledge, (b) understand facts and
ideas in the context of a conceptual framework,
and (c) organize knowledge in ways that
facilitate retrieval and application.
Bransford, Brown, & Cockling, 2000

13. The problem of
TRANSFER
Transfer is the ability to use what is
learned in one setting (e.g. school) in new
settings (e.g. life situations)

14. What does this mean for teaching?
 Learning and learners, not teaching and
teachers, must be the focus
 Depth, not breath, must determine content
 Classroom experiences must include
development of metacognitive skills and
learning independence.

15. What Learning Looks Like in the
Brain
(Redman, 2006)

16. Growth of a Brain Network
At birth
50 trillion connections
Ages 3 to 10
1000 trillion connections
Age 20
500 trillion connections

18. So…How does the brain learns and
remember?
 Practiced learning makes dendrites grow
along a narrow, defined pathway.
 Dendrites are only activated by the activity
that made them grow.

19. How The Brain Learns and Remembers
 The neuron produces new dendrites when
the brain is actively engaged in learning. The
more a nerve is stimulated, the more
dendrites it grows.
Dendrite

20. What if we want divergent (creative) rather
than convergent (analytical) thought)?
 The key is to form MULTIPLE connections –
neural networks – by providing diverse
experiences.

21. How The Brain Learns and Remembers
 2 ways to build learning and memory
 Stronger connections – repetition, direct
instruction, practice
 Broader connection pattern– multiple modes
of input, exploration, new contexts

22. What does this mean for science
teaching and learning?
 Facts may be learned through memorizing,
defining, labeling, etc. (lower levels in Blooms
taxonomy).
 If we want students to be about to apply
scientific concepts in new situations, they
must be learned and demonstrated in
complex, authentic contexts.

23. Concept attainment

 The concept attainment strategy inspires
students to use critical thinking skills to find
critical attributes of a given concept. It seems
like a game to students, but it actually
requires higher level thinking skills.

24. Concept attainment
 Sequence the items purposefully.
 Always start with a “yes” example. Follow
with a “no” example.
 The additional examples should be given in
random order, but providing a “twist” along
the way is encouraged!
 Avoid giving too many “no” examples at one
time.
 Let students give the examples.

25. Procedure
 Explain to the students that you are going to have them derive a
concept based on examples you will provide. They are to
determine what all of the “yes” examples have in common. (At
no time are they to call out what they think your concept is!)
 On your chalkboard, label a place for the “yes” examples and a
place for the “no” examples.
 Give them one yes and one no example and tape it to the board.

26. Procedure
 Introduce new examples one at a time and let the students
indicate in which category they think each example belongs.
They may signal with thumbs up or thumbs down if desired.
 The order is very important. After giving several yes and no
examples, provide a twist that requires the students to rethink
their concept!
 Students raise their hand as soon as they think they know what
the concept is and hypothesize by giving another yes
example. NEVER should they reveal the concept until you ask
for it.

27. Procedure
 Confirm or reject the hypothesis by placing their example in the
correct category.

 When you have given several examples and the students have
given examples to indicate they know the concept, ask for
critical attributes found in the yes examples. Students will
recognize the attributes, but they will not always have a name
for the concept. Finally, give the concept a name.

 Have the students reflect on their thinking by elaborating
patterns as they explain what led them to derive the concept.
How did the twist change their thinking?

28. Example
YES
 Flower
 Wheat
NO
 Car
 Rock

29. Concept Attainment
What is the concept? What are its attributes?

30. What about emotions and learning?

31. Ability to learn……
Increasing stress
Ready for flight or fight;
Impulses only
Asleep
Best learning

32. So much about learning. What
about teaching?

33. Experiences that Strengthen Neural
Connections – Cause Learning
 Are frequent, regular, and predictable
 Occur in the context of a warm, supportive
relationship
 Are associated with positive emotion (fun,
excitement, humor, comfort)
 Involve several senses
 Are responsive to the child’s interests or
initiative

34. The 2 single-most effective strategies
for producing learning are:
Challenge
Feedback

35. Vygotsky
 Zone of proximal development
 Scaffolding
What students
can do alone
What students
can do with help
What students
cannot do
Zone of Proximal Development
Vygotsky, 1962)

36. Piaget’s Proposed Stages
Slavin,(2002)

37. What does this mean for science
teaching?
 For almost all elementary students, abstract
concepts are difficult, if not impossible, to
understand; therefore…
 Concrete experiences are essential!!!

38. Key Finding #3
 A “metacognitive” approach to instruction can
help students learn to take control of their
own learning by defining learning goals and
monitoring their progress in achieving them.
 Metacognition – thinking about thinking;
reflecting on our own thought processes to
make them more deliberate an effective.
Bransford, Brown, & Cockling, 2000

39. What does this mean for science
teaching?
 Take time to have students “process”
information.
 Teach students how to reflect.
 Use strategies such as mind mapping,
questioning, and group work.

40. Bandura’s social learning theory
 Social learning theory:
People learn from one another, via
observation, imitation, and modeling.
Learning Theories Knowledgebase (2010, January).

41. Vygotsky (again)
 Social cognitive development
 Social interaction plays a fundamental role in
the development of cognition
Kearsley, G. (1994)

42. Questions are key
 What do you think?
 How do you know?
 What would happen if…”
 Why did that happen?
 What do you predict? Why?

43. Educational Philosophies
1. Teacher is active.
2. Reading and Lecturing
3. Textbook Driven
4. Abstract (not
experienced)
5. Practice – Rote
6. Student is observing.
1. Student is active.
2. Discovery Learning
3. Multiple sources of
information
4. Concrete Experience
5. Trial and Error
6. Teacher Facilitator
Direct Instruction Constructivist Learning

44. Let’s Summarize
 Since we cannot teach it all, we must focus
on:
 Conceptual understanding rather than a
collection of facts
 Helping students learn how to learn (how to
think about their thinking and deliberately
control learning)

45. Let’s Summarize
 Since students “build meaning” rather than
“absorb information” we must:
 Find out what they think about concepts and
deal with naïve conceptions and
misconceptions.
 Help students learn how to learn (how to think
about their thinking and deliberately control
learning).

46. Let’s Summarize
 If want student to obtain useful information
that they can use in diverse contexts we
must:
 Help them make many and complex neural
connections by exploring, trying out concepts
in different settings.
 Ask lots of probing questions and teach
students to ask questions.

47. Let’s Summarize
 To create the most effective learning
environment, we must provide:
 Challenge and feedback in a supportive,
accepting environment.

48. Let’s Summarize
 To teach most effectively, we must:
 Teach at the right level (ZPD).
 Use concrete experiences as much as
possible.
 Provide the support needed for success
(scaffold).
 Provide opportunities for social construction of
knowledge.

49. In groups, make a list.
Strategies: Reasons:

50. References
 Bransford, J.; Brown, A.; & Cocking, R. (Eds). (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind,
experience, and school. National Academy Press. Available from the Internet at
http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=6160
 Clinton, W. (1998, March). . Remarks by the President to the National Association of
Attorneys General. Retrieved on December 25, 2009, from
http://clinton2.nara.gov/WH/New/html/19980312-21753.html
 Hanuscin, D. (n.d.). Misconceptions in science. Retrieved on December 25, 2009, from
http://www.indiana.edu/~w505a/studwork/deborah/
 Jensen, E. (2005). Teaching with the Brain in Mind, 2nd Ed. Alexandria, VA: Association
of Supervision and Curriculum Development.
 Kearsley, G. (1994). Social development theory (L. Vygotsky). [Online]. Available:
http://www.gwu.edu/~tip/vygotsky.html [January 4, 2010].
 Learning Theories Knowledgebase (2010, January). Social Learning Theory (Bandura)
at Learning-Theories.com. Retrieved January 4th, 2010 from http://www.learning-
theories.com/social-learning-theory-bandura.html
 Redman, L. (2006). Faculty Research, Department of Pharmaology and Toxicology,
Mdical College of Georgia.Retrieved on October 28, 2009, from
http://www.mcg.edu/som/phmtox/phtx_faculty_redmond.html
 Slavin, R. (2002). Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice 7th Edition,. Boston:
Allyn and Bacon..
 Vygotsky, L.S. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.