Understanding Learning Theories

Introduction
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the
following:
Describe how understanding how we learn can be applied in a
real-world setting with self and others.
Explain the basic premises of behaviorism as applied to
learning theory.
Explain the basic premises of cognitivism as applied to
learning theory.
Explain the basic premises of constructivism as applied to
learning theory.
Explain the basic premises of humanism as applied to
learning theory.
Identify evolving frameworks of learning theory that expand
upon our understanding of how we learn.
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i.1 Understanding How We Learn
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Have you ever
· tried to help someone with a task, but the more you
encouraged him or her, the worse the process became?

· studied all night for an exam but received an F on the test?
· heard a song from 20 years ago on the radio but still knew the
lyrics? (Maybe you even wondered how you could possibly still
know the old melody but not remember the name of the
classmate you met less than 24 hours ago.)
· ignored someone because his or her beliefs differed from your
beliefs?
· felt frustrated because your child was struggling in school?
· needed to train a group of employees but had no idea how to
begin the process?
· assumed that the people around you should learn something as
easily as you do?
· looked back on a decision and recognized that you were not
thinking logically when that decision was made?
· had someone dear to you pass away and, afterwards, found it
difficult to focus on tasks for any length of time?
If you have ever experienced any of these situations, then the
psychology of learning could potentially be one of the most
important areas that you will ever study. Understanding how
humans learn, based on the psychological principles of learning
and educational psychologies, can have profound results on
productivity, success, and the search for self-actualization. Such
knowledge is applicable in your personal and professional lives.
It can empower you to know yourself better. Your knowledge
about learning can help you teach and support others better, too.
Learning, in essence, is something that you do and that affects
you every day (Curran, Harrison, & Mackinnon, 2013).
Bowie15/iStock/Thinkstock
Understanding how you learn enables you to teach and support
others.
Before you can successfully apply such information in your
daily life, it’s important to familiarize yourself with the
theories, models, and conceptual frameworks associated with
learning. A theory is a set of principles used to explain, predict,
and understand why a phenomenon occurs. Theories are

supported by research but may not be valid in all situations;
theories are propositions, not facts. For example, cognitive load
theory (CLT), which is discussed further in Chapter 3, proposes
that learning is more effective when it is designed to support
the brain’s processing structure. A model is much like a theory,
but it explains how something may occur. Models often include
visual representations of a theory. For example, Baddeley’s
model of working memory, which is discussed in Chapter 3, can
be explained using an illustration that depicts the core
components of working memory and how different elements
affect memory development. A conceptual framework (or
theoretical framework) is a structure that supports a theory by
providing clear connections to all aspects of a research problem.
For example, a conceptual framework could be used when
studying the association between cognitive load and working
memory. Shields and Rangarjan (2013) noted that conceptual
frameworks are “the way ideas are organized to achieve a
research project’s purpose” (p. 24). (For more information
about theories, models, and conceptual frameworks, see
Research Skills for Psychology Majors, written by W. K.
Gabrenya Jr.)
Psychologists have studied different aspects of learning from
different perspectives over time. Their research continues to
explore knowledge acquisition, the process of absorbing and
storing new information in one’s memory. Researchers seek to
explain how and when knowledge acquisition occurs and to
identify the properties or characteristics in the environment that
can affect it, also known as variables. The age of technology
also provides researchers with new ways to better understand
the mind and the variables that influence learning and memory
(Jonassen, Howland, Marra, & Crismond, 2008; Willis, 2006).
There are numerous theoretical frameworks, and the lines that
separate one perspective from another are blurred, although
introductory textbooks often present the perspectives as
definitively distinct (Abramson, 2013; Watrin & Darwich,
2012). Four foundational theories will be presented in this text:

behaviorism (also called behavioral analysis), cognitivism,
constructivism, and humanism. These areas will help you
develop an understanding of how learning can occur and how to
increase the likelihood of successful knowledge acquisition.
Although many ideas about these theories have occurred
throughout the course of history (see Figure i.1), behaviorism
and cognitivism propose specific viewpoints for understanding
how learning takes place. These two theories are addressed first
in this text. As the understanding of knowledge acquisition
broadened, additional attention was placed on discovering
practical strategies and variables that affect knowledge
acquisition (e.g., past and vicarious experiences, culture, and
motivation). Hence, constructivism and humanism, which tend
to suggest such strategies, will be addressed after behaviorism
and constructivism, with an emphasis on their importance,
especially when aligned with the previous theoretical models.
Figure i.1: Timeline of milestones in learning theory
This timeline provides context for the theoretical frameworks
surrounding the psychology of learning. Understanding when
viewpoints developed and experiments occurred throughout
history is crucial in understanding the scope of each theory.
© Bridgepoint Education, Inc.
This introductory chapter is designed to help you review the
basics of behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, humanism,
and a selection of evolving frameworks. The other chapters will
expand upon the summaries provided in this chapter and feature
excerpts from publications written by researchers,
psychologists, and academics, each of whom attempts to answer
two questions:
· How do we learn?
· How can we learn more effectively?
As you progress through each chapter, be an active participant
in the learning process by using skeptical inquiry, by applying

critical thinking and reasoning to all you read. Some of the
questions you can ask yourself include, but are not limited to,
the following:
· Are all theories and methods valid?
· Which theories and methods are most valid?
· How can I apply this information to my own life?
· How can I use this information to help others?
This text aims to support the argument that no approach is
“best” or superior to the others. However, you should use the
research considered to compare and contrast the approaches and
identify your own beliefs about learning goals and how to attain
them. This text is intentionally designed to include works from
a range of different authors to support the view that not all
authors, researchers, and scholars have the same ideas about
learning. Authors often have different conceptual frameworks
about the area of theory they investigate. Consider this: What if
you learned everything from only one person your entire life?
Do you think all you learned would be accurate? Often, one
author’s texts provide excellent information, yet they are
presented from the view of only one scholar. Thus, the
inclusions of works developed by a variety of authors should
further encourage you to apply skeptical inquiry throughout the
learning process. As you discover more about how we learn,
keep in mind that one text cannot highlight every view of the
vast research available in each area, but the information
presented in this text will give you a better understanding of the
research available and help guide you as you identify your
particular interests in the field.
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i.2 Behaviorism
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i.2 Behaviorism
The rule, or measuring rod, which the behaviorist puts in front
of him always is: Can I describe this bit of behavior I see in
terms of “stimulus and response”?
—John B. Watson
All of the foundational theories and models that will be
addressed in this text introduce scholars who study behaviors,
the ways that humans and other organisms respond to events in
their environments, or stimuli. Do not confuse the global idea of
studying behaviors with behaviorism or classify someone who
studies behaviors as a behaviorist. The basis of behaviorism and
human learning is the idea that we each can be trained to learn
and that this training is coordinated with physiological needs
(Watrin & Darwich, 2012). Foundationally, behaviorism
suggests that observable stimuli in our environment (rewards or
punishments) are what produce our learning. A behaviorist is
someone who holds to this perspective. Even today, we can
consider and apply the foundational behaviorist view of
learning. For example, children might learn that if they stand in
a straight line for the bus, then they will receive a sticker from
their teacher at the end of the day (a reward). Or perhaps they
learn that if they stand in line, then they will avoid a timeout (a
punishment). Either way, the children respond to stimuli
(reward or punishment) and learn the teacher’s desired
behavior. (See Figure i.2.)
Figure i.2: Example of the stimulus-response connection
A foundation of behaviorism is the theory that learning can be
developed through the use of rewards and punishments. In other
words, a behaviorist believes that humans can be trained to
learn a behavior.
© Bridgepoint Education, Inc.; Images from left to right, top to

bottom: Purestock/Thinkstock, JaneB/iStock/Thinkstock,
bmcent1/iStock/Thinkstock, and Creatas/Thinkstock
Behaviorism as a theory has recognizable foundations, but there
are also controversial ideas within its body of research and
literature. The theory initially relied on the idea that what we do
is simply a reflex, discounting the roles of thoughts and
emotions. There are some scholars who argue that behaviorism
is no longer an area of study because they believe it was
replaced by cognitivism, which is a misleading assumption
(Watrin & Darwich, 2012). As you learn about the multifaceted
circles that exist within behaviorism, think about whether you
agree with the ideas presented.
Branches of Behaviorism
Understanding the theory of behaviorism can be difficult
because there are multiple beliefs within this branch of
psychology. Zuriff (1985) described behaviorism as potentially
unlimited: “a loose family resemblance” (p. 1). This complexity
thus supports misperceptions, and sometimes disagreement,
about the ideologies aligned with behaviorism. Thus, this
overview will introduce four branches of behaviorism as
evidence of the complex progression of behaviorism and the
scholars who have historically been aligned with its
foundations. Applying Skeptical Inquiry: Behaviorism’s Many
Branches also invites you to discover additional branches of
behaviorism.
Psychological Behaviorism
Sovfoto/Universal Images Group/Getty Images
One of Pavlov’s notable experiments, which included giving a
treat to a dog when it responded correctly to a command, is an
example of psychological behaviorism.
An early stage of behaviorism, psychological behaviorism
contends that behaviors are learned through positive and
negative reinforcers, or variables that increase the probability
that a behavior or response will occur. For instance, if a child is
performing well in the class environment (listening intently and

sitting still), then the teacher could potentially reinforce this
behavior to encourage its continuance.
Notable researchers include Ivan Pavlov and Edward Lee “Ted”
Thorndike. Pavlov’s experiments, in which dogs were the test
subjects, helped identify the laws of classical conditioning.
Pavlov also developed the stimulus-response (S-R) model,
which is based on the assumption that behavior is learned by
creating connections between a stimulus, such as a dog treat,
and a response, such as the act of sitting on command.
Thorndike performed experimental studies of animal
intelligence, and he also introduced Thorndike’s law of effect
and theory of connectionism. These researchers and their
findings will be discussed in Chapter 1.
Radical Behaviorism
Radical behaviorism, also known as molecular, determinist, or
Skinnerian behaviorism, argues that behavior, rather than
mental states and thoughts, should be the focus of psychology.
Radical behaviorists studied behavior and learning without any
reflection on the subject’s inner being. Theorists believe that
behavior is only the outward manifestations of said actions. For
example, researchers in this area would contend that there is no
thought to an action such as learning how to drive a car. This
process of learning would be based only on the reinforcement of
driving (practice) rather than any motivation to be a legal
driver.
Notable theorists include B. F. Skinner and J. B. Watson.
Skinner studied operant conditioning, also known as
instrumental conditioning, and principles of reinforcement.
Watson is best known for his “Little Albert” experiments, an
example of Pavlovian conditioning, and for coining the term
behaviorism (Watson, 1913). These researchers and their
findings will be discussed in Chapter 1.
Bernstein, Roy, Srull, and Wickens (1988) suggested that
Skinner affiliates were “pioneers in the study of conditioning
[who] hoped to explain all learning by the principle of
reinforcement and the automatic, unthinking formation of

simple associations” (p. 271). This group of researchers also
suggested that it is the associative strength of a reward or
punishment (e.g., how often the stimulus produces the response)
that is the ultimate proximal causation for the behavior, unlike
molar behaviorists, whom we will consider next.
Molar Behaviorism
In opposition to radical behaviorism is molar behaviorism.
Researchers who align with this theoretical foundation, or
psychological camp, argue that the rate of reinforcers, not the
associative strength, is most important (Baum, 2002). In other
words, they believe that the argument that there is only one
associated cause for a behavior is imperfect and that the number
of events within a specific time period, or rate of reinforcers,
would in actuality be the suggested cause for the behavior. But
how does molar behaviorism differ from radical behaviorism?
We can compare the two perspectives by considering how each
might define the concept of loyalty. A radical behaviorist might
suggest that one person is loyal to another person because of the
number of times this loyalty is reinforced through feedback
such as hugs and verbal accolades. A molar behaviorist, on the
other hand, might suggest that loyalty is associated with the
length of time one person has been loyal to another, noting that
singular events such as hugs cannot explain what may be
summarized as loyalty.
Molar behaviorism began to take shape in the 1960s, but it
became increasingly important in the 1970s (e.g., Baum, 1973;
Rachlin, 1976). Prominent researchers include Howard Rachlin,
Richard Herrnstein, and William Baum. Rachlin and Baum
initially performed analyses of operant behavior in pigeons, and
their ideas are based on Richard Herrnstein’s matching law.
Rachlin’s current research focuses on behavioral economics,
investigating patterns of choice over time and the potential
effects on self-control (e.g. Rachlin, 2006; Rachlin, 2010;
Rachlin, Arfer, Safin, & Yen, 2015).
Neo-Behaviorism
Another area within the behaviorist body of work is neo-

behaviorism, an area that agrees that all learning and behavior
can be described in terms of stimulus-response connections
(Abramson, 2013). Prominent researchers include Edward C.
Tolman and Clark Hull. According to Hauser (2016),
Tolman and Hull were the two most noteworthy figures of the
movement’s middle years. Although both accepted the S-R
framework as basic, Tolman and Hull were far more willing
than Watson to hypothesize internal mechanisms or “intervening
variables” mediating the S-R connection. (para. 11)
So Tolman and Hull, unlike some of their counterparts, also
evaluated the influence of cognitive processes (e.g., thinking or
remembering). Some researchers have suggested it was Tolman
who discovered and proposed “the importance of cognitive
processes in stimulus-response learning” by placing rats in
experimental situations “in which mechanical, one-to-one
associations between specific stimuli and responses could not
explain the behavior that was observed” (Zimbardo, 1988, p.
295). (See Figure i.3.) Yet Tolman began his search for truth as
a behaviorist. Indeed, Kassin (2004) reminds us of Tolman’s
position about animals: “[A]nimals in their natural habitat learn
more than just a series of stimulus-response connections. They
also acquire a ‘cognitive map’ [a visual map within the mind] . .
. and they do so regardless of whether their explorations are
reinforced” (p. 204).
It is this line of thinking that ignited another area of learning
psychology, cognitivism, and further substantiates the
progressive evolution of ideas from which psychological
research originates. (Further discussions about cognitivism are
in section i.3, as well as in Chapters 2, 3, and 4.)
Figure i.3: Example of Tolman’s maze
Edward C. Tolman is thought to have discovered the importance
of cognitive processes during stimulus-response learning while
studying animals. He proposed that animals have the ability to
produce a cognitive map regardless of reinforcement.

Applying Skeptical Inquiry: Behaviorism’s Many Branches
In addition to the four areas introduced in this section, there are
other frameworks that behaviorists can use to guide their
research. Explore one or more of the following areas via a quick
Internet search and then consider the questions provided:
· eliminative behaviorism
· methodological behaviorism
· logical behaviorism
· epistemological behaviorism
· evidential behaviorism
Questions
1. How do these areas differ from the concepts covered in this
text?
2. What similarities do these areas have with the concepts
covered in this text?
3. Does your analysis further substantiate Zuriff’s claim that
branches of behaviorism have only “a loose family
resemblance” (1985, p. 1)?
General and Shared Principles
Learning about the theorists and the similarities and differences
between the distinct areas of study within behaviorism can seem
overwhelming. However, identifying the overarching themes
can make the information more manageable. Behaviorists,
loosely and in general, suggest that
· psychology should be considered an observable or natural
science (similar to the studies of biology or physics), rather
than a science of theoretical or abstract concepts (similar to
mathematics or philosophy) (Zuriff, 1985).
· inner physiological or computational processes should not be a
dominant explanation for responses between a stimulus and the
behavioral response.
· introspection should be dismissed as a means of collecting
scientific data.
In today’s learning communities and educational institutions,
behaviorism is presented more often as behavior analysis
(Watrin & Darwich, 2012). Behavior analysis focuses more on

how the learning takes place rather than on how information is
learned. One example is the use of positive reinforcement (such
as verbal praises) to encourage the repetitiveness of good
behavior. Behavior analysis can help identify ways for
educators, trainers, parents, therapists, and others to develop
techniques to increase supportive behaviors and reduce
undesirable behaviors. Chapter 1 will guide you through an
exploration of specific topics within the body of research that
focuses on behaviorist ideologies in education and learning,
including the evolution of behaviorism, the theory of
connectionism and the law of effect, principles of conditioning,
and applications within society.
The fundamental ideas of behaviorism encouraged a different
perspective to step to the forefront: cognitivism, which we will
discuss next. Cognitivism is not a substitute for behaviorism,
but it is an expansion of behaviorism that eventually was
acknowledged as an independent area of study (Abramson,
2013; Lilienfeld, Lynn, Namy, & Woolf, 2009). Applying
Skeptical Inquiry: What Is “Truth”? reminds us that knowledge
among psychologists expanded over time as researchers
discovered new information and sought to understand learning
from different perspectives.
Applying Skeptical Inquiry: What Is “Truth”?
Olm26250/iStock/Thinkstock
What truths do theoretical models hold about the behavior of
learning? Moreover, what is the definition of truth in the
context of behaviorism?
Have you ever taught yourself a new skill? Maybe you taught
yourself how to sing, build a table, program a computer, or knit
a scarf. Did you discover details about the activity that you did
not originally believe or know? This process of knowledge
acquisition is similar to the shifts that have occurred throughout
the history of psychology. Additional knowledge was gained
with each experiment, review, and observation, and then the
knowledge was presented to others for review. Sometimes the

information was accepted widely, but sometimes it was not. The
same is still true today. There are several subsets of researchers
within each theoretical model, as you’ve already seen. Though
researchers in each subset study something through questioning,
assessment, and research, they may approach the problem with
different methods and lenses. We as human beings continue to
explore what we do not understand, and thus a continuum of
ideas (hypotheses) are produced, each offering its own
definition of truth.
Questions
1. What examples from your own life offer evidence that, based
on one’s approach, “truth” could potentially differ from person
to person?
2. If behaviorism is fundamentally based on observable
behaviors, in opposition to abstract concepts (e.g., thinking,
remembering), does it still hold “truths” in regard to the
behavior of learning? How?
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i.3 Cognitivism
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i.3 Cognitivism
The brain is wider than the sky.
—Emily Dickinson
a-poselenov/iStock/Thinkstock
How one thinks, perceives, retains memories, learns, and
problem solves is part of cognition.

Cognition, in general, is the mental processes associated with
thought. Cognitivism is the psychological study of cognition.
The theory focuses on the role of mental processes, including
thinking, perceptions, memory, learning, attention, and problem
solving. Cognitivism expands upon behaviorism and gained
attention during the latter half of the 20th century. During this
time, as discussed in prior sections, the practice of minimizing
the importance of thoughts and emotions evoked what some in
psychology refer to as the cognitive revolution (Lilienfeld et
al., 2009; Mandler, 2002). During this time period, researchers
also began exploring the fields of computer science and
neuroscience.
Some believe that Skinner, a behaviorist, was unwilling to even
consider what the mind might add to the exploration of how we
learn: “Up to the day he died, Skinner (1990) steadfastly
refused to speculate about internal mental processes,” whereas
“most psychologists now believe that it is important to
understand internal cognitive processes—not only in humans
but in animals as well” (Kassin, 2004, p. 204).
Today, it is quite common for researchers to acknowledge both
the importance of natural science, such as behaviorism, as well
as theoretically based science, such as cognitivism (Coon,
2004). However, behaviorist and cognitivist perspectives differ
on two key points. While behaviorists and cognitivists agree
that humans think, behaviorists consider thought to be the
outward manifestation of the behavior. For example, a person
must first think before he or she can walk, but walking is the
behavior, not thinking. Cognitivists, conversely, believe that
thought affects the behavior or action that occurs. In this case,
thinking about walking is part of the behavior and might include
the variables where to, how fast, and when. (See Figure i.4.)
Figure i.4: Comparison of behaviorism and cognitivism models
The core difference between behaviorism and cognitivism is the
cognitivist belief that thought affects the behavior or action.
Conversely, behaviorists believe that thought is the outward
manifestation of a behavior.

Behaviorists and cognitivists also have different ideas about the
role of reinforcements in shaping behaviors. In behaviorism,
reinforcements (positive or negative) are applied to strengthen
or weaken associations. These methods are also applied by
cognitivists. However, in contrast with behaviorism,
cognitivists primarily apply reinforcements to change an
unwanted behavior to a more desired one, suggesting that
reinforcements such as feedback are used to help develop the
appropriate association within the mind (Thompson, Simonson,
& Hargrave, 1992). For example, a behaviorist might state that
you walked to a chair and sat down because it reinforced your
need to rest your legs; you were tired (a physiological state). A
cognitivist might ask, “Why that chair? Why did you walk now?
Why not later?” In addition, cognitivists might suggest that
your past experiences with chairs motivated you to go to this
chair to sit and rest, but without thought, you would not have
been able to perform the decision to walk to the chair. And what
if you had never seen a chair but watched another person sit in
one? In this case, you mimicked the behavior, and cognitivists
would say it took thought to remember how to walk to the chair
and to sit.
After the initial revolution, cognitivists suggested that thinking
was crucial to the behaviors displayed and that cognition should
become its own field of study (Lilienfeld, Lynn, Namy, &
Woolf, 2010). Since then, cognition has been incorporated into
many disciplines of psychological study (e.g., educational
psychology, psychology of learning, social psychology,
personality psychology, abnormal psychology, and
developmental psychology). Researchers in the learning and
educational psychologies focus on multiple aspects of
cognition. Areas of study include, but are not limited to, the
following:
· cognitive functioning (e.g., thinking, remembering, reasoning,
paying attention)

· memory development and retrieval techniques
· language acquisition
· information processing
· problem solving
· attention and perception
This text will guide you through an exploration of some
cognitivist ideologies applied in education and learning.
Chapters 2, 3, and 4 will include discussions about information
processing, problem solving, cognitive mapping, memory,
attention and perception, Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development, schema theory, Albert Bandura’s social learning
theory, and attribution theory. Applying Skeptical Inquiry:
Cognitive Maps invites you to create cognitive maps as you
continue to learn about the different theories and update the
maps as you acquire new information.
Applying Skeptical Inquiry: Cognitive Maps
Cognitive maps use a learner’s previous knowledge to help him
or her learn additional information by creating connections. For
example, you may have learned some of the theories discussed
in this text from a different text or in a previous course. But
other theories might be new to you. It will be important to
connect what you already know with the information you learn
in this text to more effectively, and accurately, learn the
material.
Review the following links to see other examples of different
styles of cognitive maps.
Hand-drawn map #1
Hand-drawn map #2
Examples of several mind maps, including a blank mind map
diagram template and maps
· to organize meetings.
· for students.
· to start a business.
· for a Web design project.
· for a promotional campaign.
· for a product launch.

· of a pricing model.
· for a weekly employee meeting.
· of the Harry Potter movie plot.
Questions
1. How could you use mind maps to improve your own
knowledge acquisition? How could you use mind maps to help
others?
2. Consider designing a mind map for this text. What might you
include for each chapter to help you better retain the
information?
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i.4 Constructivism
What we see changes what we know. What we know changes
what we see.
—Jean Piaget
Shironosov/iStock/Thinkstock
Constructivism includes thinking critically and using prior
knowledge to process information.
Constructivism is a perspective founded in cognitivism
(Braungart & Braungart, 2008). Constructivists are individuals
who investigate learning effectiveness based on the theory of
constructivism. The constructive approach to learning is
represented as a stimulus-organism-response (S-O-R) model,
which focuses on how the organism responds to a stimulus, in
contrast to the stimulus-response model, which is used in
behaviorism and does not identify the organism as part of the
model. (See Figure i.5.) In general, constructivism suggests that
people learn by connecting their previous knowledge to new
information. These are the connections that create the meaning
and acquisition of the new knowledge (Bransford, Brown, &
Cocking, 1999). For example, if you have never put together a
puzzle, meaning is created based only on what others tell you
about such puzzles. However, if you have previous puzzle-
building experiences, then these experiences can affect, both

positively and negatively, what you are willing to learn about
puzzles. The learner, or organism, is considered to be an active
processor of the information. If you are putting together a
puzzle, it is also much easier if you have seen the object
depicted before putting it together.
Figure i.5: Constructivism’s stimulus-organism-response
connection
Differing from the stimulus-response model, the stimulus-
organism-response model extends the focus to how the organism
responds to a stimulus. This constructivist approach suggests
that organisms have the capability to connect old and new
information while learning.
It is interesting to note that traditional psychology of learning
texts rarely address this area of learning psychology. This
author attributes this information gap to the vast and differing
contexts that explain the constructivism framework. In a
nutshell, constructivism is messy. Different names for different
notions about constructivism are the norm. However, the tenets
of constructivism are still justified models about how we learn
and thus are included in this text.
Branches of Constructivism
Constructivism, as do other frameworks, includes several
branches of research. Cognitive constructivism, social
constructivism, and radical constructivism are introduced in this
section. Although these three frameworks are all founded on the
assumption that people learn by connecting previous knowledge
to new information, each approaches knowledge construction in
slightly different ways, yet they are interwoven in such a way
that it can sometimes be difficult to discern one framework
from one another (Weibell, 2011).
It is also important to note that researchers often use different
names for different notions when discussing these branches of
constructivism. Thus, each area discussed next may, at times, be
reflected differently in other scholarly resources, based on the

researcher’s agenda and point of view. Overviews of these three
frameworks are provided next, but some will also be explored
further in Chapter 5.
Cognitive Constructivism
Cognitive constructivism suggests that knowledge is actively
constructed by the learner, rather than passively received from
the environment. It is also known as Piagetian constructivism,
individual constructivism, endogenous constructivism, personal
constructivism, and trivial constructivism. A simple form of
constructivism (von Glasersfeld, 1990), cognitive
constructivism was first suggested by Jean Piaget, who
proposed that the key to learning is discovery and, hence,
rediscovery (Amineh & Davatgari, 2015). Piaget’s ideas were
based on his theory of cognitive development, which will be
discussed in Chapter 4. These ideas took hold as educators
began to consider the possibility that a learner could be an
active participant in the process of knowledge acquisition; the
ideas suggested learning strategies beyond the act of lecturing
(Amineh & Davatgari, 2015).
Discovery learning, or learning by doing, as suggested by
cognitive constructivism, continues to be a supported strategy
within a learning context. However, many criticize this
particular component of constructivism (Tobias & Duffy, 2009).
In essence, the criticism revolves around whether
constructivism is a theory or a framework: “It would appear that
constructivism remains more of a philosophical framework than
a theory that either allows us to precisely describe instruction or
prescribe design strategies” (Tobias & Duffy, 2009, p. 4). That
said, this text will treat constructivism as a theoretical
foundation, but you are encouraged to use skeptical inquiry to
decide what you believe is valid. According to Noddings
(1990),
The great strength of constructivism is that it leads us to think
critically and imaginatively about the teaching-learning process.
Believing the premise of constructivism, we no longer look for
simple solutions, and we have a powerful set of criteria by

which to judge our possible choices of teaching method. (p. 18)
However, it’s also important to note that although Piaget’s
thoughts about constructivism do stress individualistic
knowledge construction, he also acknowledged social
experiences as an important factor in individual cognitive
development (Weibell, 2011).
Social Constructivism
Social constructivism, also known as dialectical constructivism,
is a framework that suggests the construction of knowledge is
malleable, emphasizing the influence of social experiences,
formed throughout the lifespan. These include a wide scope of
social influences, such as conversations, relationships, and
interactions (Ernest, 1995). Consider how you might have
learned to cook or fix a car. These types of learning experiences
are often associated with a person or persons whom we watched
do the activity. Hence, you might have learned about the
cooking or cars during your interactions with someone else
while he or she was cooking dinner or repairing a car.
This model, being strongly affected by the social context of the
learning experience, also influences the symbolic meanings that
the learner creates (Eggen & Kauchak, 2004; McMahon, 1997).
When you read the word cup, what visual representation comes
to mind? Perhaps a tall, slender vessel, or maybe a short, fat,
round vessel. Social constructivism suggests that the visual
image you create is based on what you have the most social
experience with, which may differ from person to person.
This model also suggests that social experiences influence an
individual’s schemata, or patterns of thoughts or behaviors that
organize categories of information and the relationships among
them in one’s mind. As we learn, we shape our beliefs and value
system, our language acquisition, and our ability to process
information. Consider your own pattern of thought about how to
be successful in a learning environment. What does it involve?
Studying daily or perhaps weekly? Taking notes? How might
your own interpretation of the process to acquire success differ
from that of another person? According to social

constructivism, our social experiences affect how we form these
personal interpretations.
Social constructivism also suggests that a learner’s confidence
in his or her own abilities (efficacy) is a significant variable
when an individual is learning something new, and this
confidence is strongly associated with the level of motivation
that the learner devotes to knowledge acquisition (Wertsch,
1997). This notion is exemplified by Bakhtin (1984), who noted
that “truth is not to be found inside the head of an individual
person, it is born between people collectively searching for
truth, in the process of their dialogic interaction” (p. 110).
Radical Constructivism
Radical constructivism, also known as exogenous
constructivism, argues that learning and behavior are based on
the construction of our realities and the outside world and serve
to assist us in organizing our external environments. This
perspective pushes the basis of constructivism by considering
the possibility that when a person constructs knowledge, it may
or may not be identical to someone else’s construct. Thus, the
idea of a single truth is misleading because knowledge is
variable: “What we make of experience constitutes the only
world we consciously live in” (von Glasersfeld, 1995, p. 1).
For example, earlier in this chapter you were asked to make
your own assessments regarding how the information discussed
in this text applies to your independent development. Every
individual brings his or her own backgrounds, cultures, ideas,
and experiences (both negative and positive) to a learning
environment. What individuals read and what they learn may
differ for each of them. How applicable the information is will
vary, too. Yet radical constructivism argues that if their
separate constructs are compatible (able to exist or occur
together without conflict), then the learning process was
successful (Hardy & Taylor, 1997).
Logical positivism is a related framework to consider when
discussing radical constructivism. Logical positivists promote
the notion that knowing is cognitively meaningful only if it can

be verified. Thus, this viewpoint clashes with many notions of
constructivism because knowledge construction is not
something that we can see with the naked eye. Logical
positivism is somewhat reflected in radical constructivism
because this branch of constructivism proposes that knowledge
is constructed by our environments, our realities, which can be
seen (Harris & Graham, 1994). However, logical positivism lost
its robustness as a plausible consideration in the psychology of
learning by the late 1960s (Fotion, 1995).
Transformations in the Study of Learning
The mind and the environment both play a role in the process of
learning, and the simple act of providing someone with a piece
of information does not prove that the information was learned.
Researchers in the field of learning are intrigued by
constructivism because the framework suggests that humans
construct their own learning based on firsthand experiences,
vicarious experiences, and current knowledge. In the classroom
setting, constructivism has one key component that is both
praised and condemned by educators: how information is
learned. Asking good questions that prompt learners to
understand becomes the most important aspect of this
theoretical application to learning. Thus, constructivism
changes the teacher’s role from expert to facilitator.
Consider the chart in Figure i.6. This chart highlights some of
the fundamental changes to views of learning in the academic
community that constructivism has inspired. What once was
believed to be only an outward behavior is now thought to be
affected by not only thoughts and emotions but also existing
knowledge (whether correct or incorrect), life experiences, and
the method of information delivery. Constructivists suggest that
all of these variables affect how knowledge is constructed and
that knowledge formation could differ from person to person.
Figure i.6: Comparison of learning environments
Constructivist learning expands from the traditional individual,
static learning to one where the learner discovers, learns with
others, and is able to analyze and think critically.

Chapter 5 will introduce topics within the bodies of research
that are built upon constructivist ideologies of education and
learning, including social constructivism, situated cognition,
and sociocultural theory. The chapter will also introduce
strategies that support this framework, such as problem-based
learning. Applying Skeptical Inquiry: Belief Construction
invites you to apply what you know about constructivism to a
scenario focused on a learner’s study habits.
Applying Skeptical Inquiry: Belief Construction
Diego_cervo/iStock/Thinkstock
Often, the constructivist point of view can produce negative
effects on personal decisions.
Often, our constructed beliefs about a strategy, construct, or
behavior can have negative effects on our own decisions.
Consider the following example:
Stephanie is attending an online university. She crams for
exams for 2–3 hours the night before the test. This is a
consistent pattern for her, and the results have been mediocre
throughout her academic journey. During lunch one afternoon,
Stephanie’s peer suggests alternative formats to studying that
could help her attain better results. Stephanie does not believe
the strategies will work for her, and thus she does not try the
suggestions, continuing her past study behaviors and continuing
her belief that this is the best she can do.
Now consider Stephanie’s situation from a constructivist point
of view and think about the questions provided.
Questions
1. Based on constructivism, why do you think Stephanie might
believe that other strategies will not work for her?
2. Consider your own beliefs about learning. Are there things
that you believe that may be holding you back, based on your
past or vicarious experiences?
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i.5 Humanism
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i.5 Humanism
Where is the wisdom we have lost in knowledge? Where is the
knowledge we have lost in information?
—T. S. Eliot, Choruses From the Rock
Humanism proposes that people act and learn through
intentional behaviors, and that their behaviors are influenced by
their values (Huitt, 2001; Kurtz, 2000). Values could include
one’s “honesty, integrity, caring, compassion, altruism,
empathy, and respect for self” (Cohen & Sherif, 2014, p. 680).
Humanism suggests that behaviors are also influenced by one’s
social relationships, which could include clients, peers, and
colleagues (Cohen & Sherif, 2014). The theory also emphasizes
the individual’s role in his or her personal growth and
development, that the individual must take ownership of the
process. A humanist thus takes the “whole” person into
consideration, including the individual’s social, cultural,
spiritual, and emotional experiences (Miller & Schmidt, 1999).
Monkeybusinessimages/iStock/Thinkstock
Humanism places importance on the role of the teacher as
facilitator, providing one-on-one learning experiences.
Humanism places great value on the individual’s motivation,
self-development, autonomy, self- and other awareness, and
goal setting. According to Elias and Merriam (1980), “Human
beings are capable of making significant personal choices
within the constraints imposed by heredity, personal history,
and environment” (p. 118). Humanism differs from behaviorism

in that humanism does not support the notion that behavior and
learning are simply responses to stimuli. Compared with
cognitivism, humanism does not support the argument that the
construction of knowledge and meaning are central to the
learning process. Constructivism and humanism differ in their
views about the degree of individualized focus in the pursuit of
personal growth and self-actualization, but humanism does
support person-centered learning and the role of the teacher as
facilitator, similar to constructivism. Valett (1977) stated that
humanistic education “develop[s] individuals who will be able
to live joyous, humane, and meaningful lives . . . [and supports]
the development of emotive abilities, the shaping of affective
desires, the fullest expression of aesthetic qualities, and the
enhancement of powers of self-direction and control” (p. 12).
Humanism became a predominant topic of conversation in the
academic community during the 1960s and gained popularity in
education and learning when several critics of American
classrooms (e.g., Goodman, 1964; Holt, 1967; Kozol, 1967;
Gross & Gross, 1969; and Glasser, 1969) described
contemporaneous classroom environments as indecent and
damaging to the learner. Humanism in education and learning
promotes the importance of developing the learner’s regulatory
and affective (emotional) systems, emphasizing the individual’s
potential, freedom, and dignity (Huitt, 2001). This perspective
suggests that first the regulatory system, which allows one to
sense and respond to changes, connects the environment to
one’s internal beliefs, thoughts, and emotions. Then the
affective system accommodates the information from the
environment into the individual’s ability to take action. Thus,
humanism suggests that one’s emotional state or predetermined
beliefs affect how the information is processed, whether it’s
new knowledge, an attitude, or a skill. Abraham Maslow,
considered the father of humanism, also suggested that
humanism in learning should take into account human potential,
personal choice, and ingenuity, in addition to beliefs and
values. Maslow noted that the goal of learning should be self-

actualization, the realization and fulfillment of one’s potential.
To further understand humanism, in the context of learning,
Gage and Berliner (1991) described five basic objectives of this
view:
1. Promote positive self-direction and independence
(development of the regulatory system)
2. Develop the ability to take responsibility for what is learned
(regulatory and affective systems)
3. Develop creativity (divergent thinking aspect of cognition)
4. Develop curiosity (exploratory behavior, a function of
imbalance or dissonance in any of the systems)
5. Develop an interest in the arts (primarily to develop the
affective system)
In addition, Gage and Berliner (1991) suggested basic principles
of humanism applied to learning:
· Students will learn best what they want and need to know.
· Knowing how to learn is more important than acquiring a lot
of knowledge.
· Self-evaluation is the only meaningful evaluation of a
student’s work.
· Feelings are as important as facts.
· Students learn best in a nonthreatening environment.
However, humanism also has its share of critics, who note that
the means for measuring humanism’s relevance to learning is
primarily established through philosophical and qualitative
methodology, which could involve variable approaches and
yield subjective results (Seligman, 2002). Additionally, C. H.
Patterson suggested in 1987 that there are significant issues
with creating a humanistic approach to learning in a classroom:
1. Teachers are not prepared to meet the classroom management
skills needed to manage environments that promote increased
spontaneity and creative discovery. Even when teachers are
trained to manage discovery learning practices, they might
revert back to methods that mimic the teacher-directed learning
experiences of their pasts (Bagher, 2013; Tabachnick &
Zeichner, 1984; Zeichner & Tabachnick, 1981). (This is an

argument that, in essence, supports the constructivist view that
past experiences can affect the application of knowledge, even
if this knowledge is successfully learned.)
2. Affective and relational development conflicts with the
cognitive development goals of education.
3. Humanistic education is, at times, associated with secular
humanism.
Chapter 6 will discuss several theories that support humanism,
including the Steiner pedagogy and Waldorf education,
motivation, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, experiential learning,
and transformative learning. Applying Skeptical Inquiry:
Applying Humanism to Learning invites you to apply what you
know about humanism to a scenario focused on a learner’s
academic goals.
Applying Skeptical Inquiry: Applying Humanism to Learning
Humanism in learning supports areas such as self-directed
learning and self-evaluation. Consider the following scenario:
Jeff is just starting high school but already knows that he is
interested in becoming a nurse. He is very successful in his
science courses, but he struggles in English and literature
courses.
A humanist might reason that Jeff believes English and
literature do not support his interest in nursing. What do you
think?
Questions
1. Based on humanistic learning principles, how could Jeff’s
parents or instructors help Jeff achieve greater success in these
more personally challenging courses?
2. How could Jeff, personally, make these courses more
applicable to his own goals?
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i.6 Evolving Frameworks
The world we have created is a product of our thinking. It
cannot be changed without changing our thinking.
—Albert Einstein

With the substantial amount of research that took shape in the
late 20th century, as well as the need to stay competitive in a
global environment, additional learning frameworks and
variables continue to be introduced, tested, questioned,
expanded, and critiqued. Applying Skeptical Inquiry:
Intelligence and a New Age of Learning offers one perspective
on how our understanding of knowledge acquisition continues to
change. The last two chapters of this text will introduce areas
suggested to affect learning that some researchers might
consider less rigorous but still show promising results for
strategies to increase learning success, including an awareness
of one’s own mental abilities, learning preferences, strategies,
and emotional development. As stated previously, you should
evaluate the content with skeptical inquiry and a willingness to
expand upon what you already know about learning. The
following areas will be introduced in Chapters 7 and 8:
· Mental ability awareness
· Intelligence quotient (IQ): What is intelligence, and how does
it affect learning?
· Learning capacities and strategies
· Multiple intelligences: How do one’s learning preferences
affect how one learns? How can an awareness of one’s learning
capacities help one learn more effectively?
· Learning and technology: How can (or does) technology
support learning?
· Self-regulated learning: How does understanding the
importance of taking ownership for one’s learning increase
success?
· Metacognition: How can understanding the learning process,
applying it, and adjusting for development increase learning
effectiveness?
· Emotional development
· Emotional intelligence: How does one’s emotional
development potentially affect how one learns?
Each one of these evolving frameworks has the potential to be
its own text, even its own course, so it seems pertinent to

clarify that not every element, idea, or suggestion under these
paradigms, which are distinct sets of concepts or thought
patterns, can be included in this text. Instead, your introduction
to these ideas should motivate you to seek out more knowledge,
to better understand your own abilities, and to strive beyond the
status quo. Psychology is complex. Psychology is multifaceted.
Psychology can help you strengthen your understanding of
yourself and those around you. It is up to you to decide what
concepts you can or cannot apply to your learning.
Applying Skeptical Inquiry: Intelligence and a New Age
of Learning
Human beings have developed at a substantial rate, and our
understanding of how we learn matures more each day. Watch
Alex Wissner-Gross’s TEDx Talk, “A New Equation for
Intelligence.” In this video, he explores the idea of intelligence
and its meaning in today’s world.
https://youtu.be/ue2ZEmTJ_Xo
Questions
1. Based on this video, how do you think learning will change
over the next century?
2. How will humans need to change to have continued success
when acquiring new knowledge?
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Summary & Resources
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Summary & Resources
Chapter Summary
This chapter introduced foundational theories and learning
models in the psychology of learning. Researchers use these

theories and models to identify affective variables by asking
questions about how humans learn, designing studies that seek
to answer such questions, and assessing the findings that
support or dispute their predictions.
You can begin to understand why learning is such a fascinating
and complex area of psychology by looking at learning through
the frameworks of behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism,
and humanism. Each of these frameworks has supporters and
critics who suggest plausible rationalizations for why the
framework should not be applied exclusively to questions about
learning. Such variation in the study of learning demands that
academics and knowledge seekers constantly and consistently
question methods and frameworks. If those who study learning
psychology continue to have a questioning mindset, then they
will help ensure that this area of research continues to
rigorously evaluate and disseminate new information. A
thorough understanding of both the supportive and the critical
arguments of theories and models is vital to your understanding
of learning and gives you valuable insights on the variables that
could affect the learning process. See Table i.1 for an overview
of the areas discussed.
Table i.1: Overview of frameworks introduced
Area to be addressed
Chapter(s) addressing
Description
Topic areas
behaviorism
Ch. 1
A theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviors are
acquired through conditioning by way of interactions with the
environment; it argues that one can be trained to learn.
· psychological behaviorism
· radical behaviorism
· molar behaviorism
· classical and operant conditioning
· reinforcement and punishment

cognitivism
Ch. 2–4
A theory that focuses on mental processes, including how
people perceive, think, remember, learn, solve problems, and
direct their attention to one stimulus rather than another.
· the cognitivist movement
· information processing
· schema development
· cognitive/concept mapping
· Bloom’s taxonomy
· memory development
· false memories
· autobiographical memories
· attention and perception
· cognitive load theory
· theory of cognitive development
· schemata development’s role in comprehension
· social learning theory
· social cognitive theory
· attribution theory
constructivism
Ch. 5
A theory of learning based on the idea that people learn by
connecting their previous knowledge to new information; some
argue it is a framework rather than a theory.
· types of constructivism
· social constructivism
· situated cognition
· sociocultural theory
· problem-based learning
humanism
Ch. 6
A theory of learning that proposes that people act and learn
through intentional behaviors, placing great value on the
individual’s motivation, self-development, autonomy, self- and
other awareness, and goal setting.

· Steiner pedagogy
· Waldorf education
· motivation
· Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
· experiential learning
· transformative learning
evolving frameworks
Ch. 7–8
Modern theories and models that are currently addressed.
· intelligence
· intelligence quotient
· multiple intelligences
· emotional intelligence
· learning and technology
· metacognition
The options that learning theories and models offer can bring
vitality and energy to the scholarship process and create more
successful learning, whether you are developing yourself or
educating, training, advising, or counseling others. In today’s
education and learning psychologies, researchers and academics
might align with more than one foundation. As you learned in
this chapter, ideas can be intertwined with questions that do not
fit entirely within one theoretical model. In today’s academic
circles, researchers pose questions and then identify the
framework or lens that their questions will be founded upon. In
some cases, the researcher’s topic of interest resides in one
psychological camp, but overall, most academics are in search
of answers to help learners succeed and are prepared to look
through a variety of lenses during their quest for answers.
Biologists Bernd and Margaret Heinrich (1984) stated, “Even
carefully collected results can be misleading if the underlying
context of assumptions is wrong” (p. 151). Looking at a
question from all angles is beneficial, but this approach is also a
requirement for discovering, or uncovering, answers.
Remember that this text will present information about learning

in a way that allows you to make your own assessments about
the questions that should be asked and what foundations could
help identify the solutions. The hope is that you will be able to
apply the theories considered in this text to your own journey in
learning and go on to weave the concepts into other areas of
your professional and personal lives. Et iter adducet
illustration: May your journey bring enlightenment!
Key Ideas
· Learning psychology is applicable to every area of life,
including personal and professional goals.
· There is no “best” theory, framework, or model. Each is
applicable to successful knowledge acquisition.
· You should compare, contrast, and identify your own beliefs
about your personal learning goals and how to attain them using
the techniques and guidelines suggested by research.
· All of the foundational theories and models that will be
addressed in this text feature scholars who study behaviors.
· The basis of behaviorism and human learning is the idea that
every individual can be trained to learn something (Watrin &
Darwich, 2012).
· The theory of behaviorism, also known as behavior analysis, is
a multifaceted progression of ideas and research.
· Cognitivism is the psychological study of cognition, the study
of the mind, an area of study that gained momentum during the
latter half of the 20th century.
· Cognitivism expands upon behaviorism but focuses on mental
processes, including thinking, perceptions, memory, learning,
attention, and problem solving.
· Constructivism is a perspective founded upon cognitivism that
supports the idea that people learn by connecting their previous
knowledge to new information.
· Some researchers classify constructivism as a framework,
rather than a theory.
· Humanism suggests that people act and learn through
premeditated behaviors that are influenced by their values.
· Humanism focuses on the individual’s motivation, self-

development, autonomy, self- and other awareness, and goal
setting.
· Evolving frameworks that focus on learning continue to
expand psychologists’ understandings of how people learn and
how they can learn more effectively.
· Effective learning is a complex process, and an awareness of
how people learn can increase the likelihood of successful
knowledge acquisition.
Additional Resources
An essential part of your quest to better understand learning is
becoming more familiar with academic resources that will
create a more valuable and holistic learning experience. The
following journals can provide you with a place to start. Be sure
to first check your local (or online) university and public
libraries for access to these resources. You might be able to
access these and other academic resources without paying any
additional fees.
Peer-Reviewed Behaviorism-/Behavior Analytic–Focused
Journals
· Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
· Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior
· Journal of Organizational Behavior
· Behavior and Social Issues
· The Psychological Record
Peer-Reviewed Cognition-Focused Journals
· International Journal of School and Cognitive Psychology
· Advances in Cognitive Psychology
· Applied Cognitive Psychology
· Journal of Cognitive Psychology
· The Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning
· Journal of Adolescence
· Journal of Learning Disabilities
Peer-Reviewed Constructivist-Supportive Journals
(Predominantly Education Focused)
· Learning and Teaching: The International Journal of Higher
Education in the Social Sciences

· Journal of Social Sciences, Literature and Languages (also a
humanistic-supportive journal)
· Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences (also a humanistic-
supportive journal)
· Teaching and Learning in Medicine
· Studies in Philosophy and Education
· Teaching Philosophy
· Pedagogy: Critical Approaches to Teaching Literature,
Language, Composition, and Culture
· Academic Exchange Quarterly
· College Teaching
· International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher
Education
· The Journal of Faculty Development
· Journal of Hispanic Higher Education
· Journal of Online Learning and Teaching
· Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning
· Journal on Excellence in College Teaching
· The Review of Higher Education
Peer-Reviewed Humanistic-Supportive Journals
· The Journal of Humanistic Counseling
· Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences (also a
constructivist-supportive journal)
· Journal of Social Sciences, Literature and Languages (also a
constructivist-supportive journal)
· New Directions for Higher Education
· The Elementary School Journal
· Adult Education Quarterly
· New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education
· Journal of Individual Psychology
Key Terms
behavior
behaviorism
behaviorist
cognition
cognitive constructivism

cognitive revolution
cognitivism
cognitivist
conceptual framework
constructivism
constructivist
discovery learning
humanism
humanist
knowledge acquisition
model
molar behaviorism
neo-behaviorism
paradigms
psychological behaviorism
psychological camp
radical behaviorism
radical constructivism
rate of reinforcers
reinforcer
skeptical inquiry
social constructivism
stimuli
stimulus-organism-response (S-O-R) model
stimulus-response (S-R) model
theory
variable
· Knowledge Check
· Notebook
Introduction

Learning Objectives
following:
real
-
world setting with self and others.
Explain the basic premises of behaviorism as applied to learning
theory.
E
xplain the basic premises of cognitivism as applied to learning
theory.
learning theory.
Explain the basic premises of humanism as applied to learning
theory.
Identify evolving framewor
ks of learning theory that expand upon our understanding of
how we learn.

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Have you ever
·
tried to help someone with a task, but the more you encouraged
him or her, the worse the
process became?
·
studied all
night for an exam but received an F on the test?
Introduction
Learning Objectives
following:
real-world setting with self and others.
Explain the basic premises of behaviorism as applied to
learning theory.
Explain the basic premises of cognitivism as applied to
learning theory.
learning theory.
Explain the basic premises of humanism as applied to
learning theory.
Identify evolving frameworks of learning theory that expand
upon our understanding of how we learn.

TOC/Annotation menu
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Have you ever
encouraged him or her, the worse the
process became?

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