Counting protons, neutrons, and electrons in ions
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Ions are formed when atoms gain or lose electrons, giving them a positive or negative charge. Sodium loses an electron to become Na+, giving it 11 protons and 10 electrons. Chlorine gains an electron to become Cl-, giving it 17 protons and 18 electrons. Atoms only gain or lose electrons to become ions, keeping the number of protons the same. The document provides examples of ions formed from magnesium, sulfur, iron and nitrogen atoms and lists their number of protons and electrons.
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Atomos, TeorÃas Atómicas, TeorÃa Cuántica, Masa Atómica e Isotopos
Atomos, TeorÃas Atómicas, TeorÃa Cuántica, Masa Atómica e Isotopos
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02 b ionic vs. molecular compounds, bohr rutherford and lewis
02 b ionic vs. molecular compounds, bohr rutherford and lewis
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Algebra Review for General Chemistry Placement
This document provides an algebra review covering manipulating algebraic equations to solve for unknown variables. It discusses adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing terms on both sides of equations. It also covers solving equations with exponents and variables in denominators. Examples are provided for each concept and worked out step-by-step. Readers are encouraged to practice these skills on sample equations. Key points are to manipulate both sides of an equation equally and be careful not to incorrectly change a variable from the denominator to the numerator.
Unit 4 1 orbitals introduction
Electrons in atoms occupy specific energy states called orbitals. Orbitals represent the region where an electron is most likely to be found within its energy state. For example, the orbital occupied by the single electron in a hydrogen atom is shown as a cloud indicating a higher probability of finding the electron in the darker regions. While common diagrams depict electrons orbiting the nucleus like planets, this is not an accurate model - electrons occupy probabilistic regions described by orbitals rather than following precise orbits.
2 1 units introduction
This document discusses the importance of units in measurements and calculations. It introduces the seven standard base units used in science for measurements like length, mass, time, etc. Derived units are also explained as combinations of base units, like square meters for area or joules for energy. The document emphasizes that including units is crucial for chemistry calculations to catch mistakes, and advises writing out work on paper with units rather than solely using a calculator.
Unit 1 3 significant digits
This document discusses significant digits and proper rounding techniques in calculations. It begins by explaining how to round numbers to various places and the rules for determining significant digits. It emphasizes that the accuracy of a calculation is limited by the least accurate initial value. For addition and subtraction, the answer should be rounded to the least number of decimal places. For multiplication and division, the answer should be rounded to the same number of significant digits as the least accurate factor or dividend. Examples are provided to demonstrate rounding calculations correctly according to these rules.
Unit 1 2 scientific notation
This document introduces scientific notation and provides examples for converting between standard and scientific notation. It explains that scientific notation uses a number and exponential term to represent very large or small numbers. Standard notation numbers are converted to scientific notation by moving the decimal point to the left or right until there is one non-zero digit before the decimal, and adjusting the exponential term accordingly. Calculations can then be performed using scientific notation on a calculator. The document provides examples and practice problems to illustrate these concepts.
Unit 1 1 algebra review
The document provides an algebra review on manipulating algebraic equations to solve for an unknown variable x. It covers topics such as: adding/subtracting numbers, multiplying/dividing numbers, using a combination of operations, dealing with x in the denominator, misconceptions to avoid, exponents, and practice problems. The review explains that any manipulation done to one side of an equation must also be done to the other side to solve for x. It provides examples of isolating the term containing x and then solving.
Unit 7 4 stoichiometry – limiting reactants
This document discusses limiting reactants in chemical reactions. It explains that:
1) When reactants are combined in non-balanced ratios, one reactant will be consumed fully while excess of the other remains, with the fully-consumed reactant being the limiting reactant.
2) To determine the limiting reactant, the amounts of each reactant are converted to amounts of product, and the reactant that produces the lower amount of product is the limiting reactant.
3) Examples are provided to demonstrate this concept, including reactions involving hydrogen, oxygen, wheels, pedals and frames to make tricycles. The document cautions against common misconceptions in determining the limiting reactant.
Unit 7 3 stoichiometry - mass
This document discusses how to perform stoichiometric calculations using mass quantities instead of moles. It explains that the coefficients in a balanced chemical equation represent mole ratios that can be used to convert between reactants and products. An example calculation shows how to determine the mass of oxygen gas needed to react with a given mass of hydrogen gas using mole-mass conversions and the mole ratio from the balanced equation. The document emphasizes that coefficients should only be used when converting between moles, not masses. It also provides a practice problem and solution to reinforce the multi-step calculation process.
Unit 7 2 stoichiometry - mole
Stoichiometry is the process of using the coefficients in a balanced chemical equation to mathematically relate the quantities of substances involved in a chemical reaction. An example shows how to use the mole ratios from a balanced equation to calculate the moles of oxygen needed for a given number of moles of hydrogen, and the moles of water that would be produced. Key aspects are setting up conversion factors using the mole ratios and canceling out the given amount to solve for the desired quantity. Practice problems demonstrate calculating unknown reactants or products from amounts of other substances in the reaction.
Unit 7 1 balancing equations
This document discusses balancing chemical equations by adding coefficients to obey the law of conservation of mass. It explains that chemical equations must have the same number and type of atoms on both sides. To balance equations, coefficients are added in front of chemical substances without changing formulas. Examples show balancing equations by adding coefficients to match elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon on both sides. The document warns against changing formulas instead of using coefficients and provides hints for balancing equations.
Hybridization
This document discusses hybrid orbital bonding theory. It explains that atomic orbitals alone cannot describe bonding in molecules like methane, where carbon forms four equivalent bonds arranged tetrahedrally. Carbon's atomic orbitals cannot account for this. The solution is that carbon's 2s and 3p orbitals hybridize to form four new equivalent sp3 hybrid orbitals oriented at 109.5 degrees, allowing carbon to form four sigma bonds to hydrogen in methane. Hybridization is determined by counting electron domains, with sp, sp2, and sp3 hybridization occurring for 2, 3, and 4 domains respectively. This model explains methane's bonding and tetrahedral structure.
VSEPR models
This document introduces valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory, which is used to predict the molecular geometry of molecules based on the number of electron domains around the central atom. It explains that electron pairs repel each other and will spread out as far as possible in three dimensions. The number of electron domains determines the domain geometry, while the molecular geometry is based only on the arrangement of bonding domains. Examples are used to demonstrate how to draw dot diagrams and determine the domain and molecular geometries. Non-bonding pairs can cause a difference between domain and molecular geometry. Common molecular geometries that result from different numbers of bonding domains are also outlined.
Lewis dot diagrams
Lewis dot diagrams show the localization of valence electrons in atoms and molecules. They are drawn by placing the chemical symbol of each atom and then arranging electrons around the symbols to achieve full octets. For molecules, the least electronegative atom is placed in the center and single bonds are drawn between atoms before distributing remaining electrons. The octet rule is followed to maximize each atom's valence electrons to 8, with exceptions for hydrogen and some other elements. Practice examples are provided to demonstrate drawing Lewis dot diagrams for different atoms and molecules.
Unit 5 8 acid nomenclature
- Acids are covalent compounds that release hydrogen ions in water. Their names are determined by specific nomenclature rules.
- There are two categories of acids: binary acids containing hydrogen and one other atom type, and oxy-acids containing hydrogen and a polyatomic ion.
- Binary acids are named with the prefix "hydro-" followed by the other atom's name ending in "-ic". Oxy-acids do not use "hydro-" and change the polyatomic ion's name ending to "-ic".
Unit 5 7 covalent nomenclature
This document provides information on naming covalent compounds:
1) It outlines the process for naming covalent compounds, which involves stating the number of atoms using prefixes, then the element names with the second element ending in "-ide".
2) It lists the prefixes used to indicate the number of atoms in a compound from 1 to 10.
3) It notes an exception where the "mono-" prefix is omitted when there is only one of the first atom in the formula.
The document includes examples of naming and writing formulas for covalent compounds.
Unit 5 6 polyatomic ions
This document discusses polyatomic ions, which are ions composed of multiple atoms bonded together. It begins by explaining that polyatomic ions form when groups of atoms gain or lose electrons to become electrically charged. The document then lists and defines several common polyatomic ions, including ammonium, nitrate, carbonate, sulfate, and phosphate ions. It provides examples of how to write chemical formulas for compounds containing polyatomic ions by balancing the charges on the constituent ions. The document emphasizes correctly identifying polyatomic ions and distinguishing them from similar-sounding monatomic ions. It includes practice problems for writing formulas and names of ionic compounds involving common polyatomic ions.
Unit 5 5 basic ionic nomenclature
Ionic compounds are named by combining the name of the metal cation and non-metal anion. The non-metal name ends in "-ide". For example, sodium nitride is named Na3N, not trisodium nitride. To write formulas from names, determine the ion charges and balance them. Some students incorrectly add prefixes like "tri-" instead of just writing the compound name. Practice naming and writing formulas of common ionic compounds to build skills in basic ionic nomenclature.
Unit 5 4 basic ionic compounds
- Ionic compounds form when ions combine in simple whole number ratios to make neutral compounds. For example, sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl-) ions combine in a 1:1 ratio to form NaCl.
- Calcium (Ca2+) and nitride (N3-) ions combine in a 3:2 ratio to form Ca3N2 in order to balance the charges.
- When writing ionic formulas, always use the simplest ratio of ions and do not write out ion charges, as the compound is neutral. For example, write PbS2, not Pb2+S2-.
Unit 5 3 molecular masses and conversions
This document discusses how to calculate molar masses of compounds by adding together the atomic masses of each element in the compound. It provides examples of calculating the molar mass of (NH4)2S, P4O10, SiCl4, and Cu3(PO4)2. The document also explains how to perform calculations involving moles, mass, and numbers of molecules or formula units of compounds using dimensional analysis and molar mass values. Practice problems are included for calculating moles or mass given the other value.
Unit 5 2 determining if a compound is ionic or covalent
This document discusses how to identify if a substance contains ionic or covalent bonds. It states that if a substance contains a metal and one or more non-metals, it likely contains ionic bonds. If a substance contains all non-metals, it likely contains covalent bonds, with the exception of ammonium compounds which contain ionic bonds despite having no metals. The document provides examples to illustrate these rules and includes a practice problem for the reader.
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Unit 5 2 determining if a compound is ionic or covalent
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Analysis of Polygenic Traits (GPB-602)
Quantitative genetics – study of inheritance of quantitative characters or polygenic characters in experimental populations.
Candidate young stellar objects in the S-cluster: Kinematic analysis of a sub...
Context. The observation of several L-band emission sources in the S cluster has led to a rich discussion of their nature. However, a definitive answer to the classification of the dusty objects requires an explanation for the detection of compact Doppler-shifted Brγ emission. The ionized hydrogen in combination with the observation of mid-infrared L-band continuum emission suggests that most of these sources are embedded in a dusty envelope. These embedded sources are part of the S-cluster, and their relationship to the S-stars is still under debate. To date, the question of the origin of these two populations has been vague, although all explanations favor migration processes for the individual cluster members. Aims. This work revisits the S-cluster and its dusty members orbiting the supermassive black hole SgrA* on bound Keplerian orbits from a kinematic perspective. The aim is to explore the Keplerian parameters for patterns that might imply a nonrandom distribution of the sample. Additionally, various analytical aspects are considered to address the nature of the dusty sources. Methods. Based on the photometric analysis, we estimated the individual H−K and K−L colors for the source sample and compared the results to known cluster members. The classification revealed a noticeable contrast between the S-stars and the dusty sources. To fit the flux-density distribution, we utilized the radiative transfer code HYPERION and implemented a young stellar object Class I model. We obtained the position angle from the Keplerian fit results; additionally, we analyzed the distribution of the inclinations and the longitudes of the ascending node. Results. The colors of the dusty sources suggest a stellar nature consistent with the spectral energy distribution in the near and midinfrared domains. Furthermore, the evaporation timescales of dusty and gaseous clumps in the vicinity of SgrA* are much shorter ( 2yr) than the epochs covered by the observations (≈15yr). In addition to the strong evidence for the stellar classification of the D-sources, we also find a clear disk-like pattern following the arrangements of S-stars proposed in the literature. Furthermore, we find a global intrinsic inclination for all dusty sources of 60 ± 20◦, implying a common formation process. Conclusions. The pattern of the dusty sources manifested in the distribution of the position angles, inclinations, and longitudes of the ascending node strongly suggests two different scenarios: the main-sequence stars and the dusty stellar S-cluster sources share a common formation history or migrated with a similar formation channel in the vicinity of SgrA*. Alternatively, the gravitational influence of SgrA* in combination with a massive perturber, such as a putative intermediate mass black hole in the IRS 13 cluster, forces the dusty objects and S-stars to follow a particular orbital arrangement. Key words. stars: black holes– stars: formation– Galaxy: center– galaxies: star formation
Post translation modification by Suyash Garg
overview of PTM helps to the students who wants to clear their basics about it.
Mechanisms and Applications of Antiviral Neutralizing Antibodies - Creative B...
Neutralizing antibodies, pivotal in immune defense, specifically bind and inhibit viral pathogens, thereby playing a crucial role in protecting against and mitigating infectious diseases. In this slide, we will introduce what antibodies and neutralizing antibodies are, the production and regulation of neutralizing antibodies, their mechanisms of action, classification and applications, as well as the challenges they face.
Mechanics:- Simple and Compound Pendulum
a compound pendulum is a physical system with a more complex structure than a simple pendulum, incorporating its mass distribution and dimensions into its oscillatory motion around a fixed axis. Understanding its dynamics involves principles of rotational mechanics and the interplay between gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy. Compound pendulums are used in various scientific and engineering applications, such as seismology for measuring earthquakes, in clocks to maintain accurate timekeeping, and in mechanical systems to study oscillatory motion dynamics.
Gadgets for management of stored product pests_Dr.UPR.pdf
Insectsplayamajorroleinthedeteriorationoffoodgrainscausingbothquantitativeandqualitativelosses
ï‚—Wellprovedthatnogranariescanbefilledwithgrainswithoutinsectsastheharvestedproducecontainegg(or)larvae(or)pupae(or)adultinsectinthembecauseoffieldcarryoverinfestationwhichcannotbeavoidedindevelopingcountrieslikeIndia
ï‚—Simpletechnologiesfortimelydetectionofinsectsinthestoredproduceandtherebyplantimelycontrolmeasures
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MICROBIAL INTERACTION PPT/ MICROBIAL INTERACTION AND THEIR TYPES // PLANT MIC...ABHISHEK SONI NIMT INSTITUTE OF MEDICAL AND PARAMEDCIAL SCIENCES , GOVT PG COLLEGE NOIDA
Microbial interaction
Microorganisms interacts with each other and can be physically associated with another organisms in a variety of ways.
One organism can be located on the surface of another organism as an ectobiont or located within another organism as endobiont.
Microbial interaction may be positive such as mutualism, proto-cooperation, commensalism or may be negative such as parasitism, predation or competition
Types of microbial interaction
Positive interaction: mutualism, proto-cooperation, commensalism
Negative interaction: Ammensalism (antagonism), parasitism, predation, competition
I. Mutualism:
It is defined as the relationship in which each organism in interaction gets benefits from association. It is an obligatory relationship in which mutualist and host are metabolically dependent on each other.
Mutualistic relationship is very specific where one member of association cannot be replaced by another species.
Mutualism require close physical contact between interacting organisms.
Relationship of mutualism allows organisms to exist in habitat that could not occupied by either species alone.
Mutualistic relationship between organisms allows them to act as a single organism.
Examples of mutualism:
i. Lichens:
Lichens are excellent example of mutualism.
They are the association of specific fungi and certain genus of algae. In lichen, fungal partner is called mycobiont and algal partner is called
II. Syntrophism:
It is an association in which the growth of one organism either depends on or improved by the substrate provided by another organism.
In syntrophism both organism in association gets benefits.
Compound A
Utilized by population 1
Compound B
Utilized by population 2
Compound C
utilized by both Population 1+2
Products
In this theoretical example of syntrophism, population 1 is able to utilize and metabolize compound A, forming compound B but cannot metabolize beyond compound B without co-operation of population 2. Population 2is unable to utilize compound A but it can metabolize compound B forming compound C. Then both population 1 and 2 are able to carry out metabolic reaction which leads to formation of end product that neither population could produce alone.
Examples of syntrophism:
i. Methanogenic ecosystem in sludge digester
Methane produced by methanogenic bacteria depends upon interspecies hydrogen transfer by other fermentative bacteria.
Anaerobic fermentative bacteria generate CO2 and H2 utilizing carbohydrates which is then utilized by methanogenic bacteria (Methanobacter) to produce methane.
ii. Lactobacillus arobinosus and Enterococcus faecalis:
In the minimal media, Lactobacillus arobinosus and Enterococcus faecalis are able to grow together but not alone.
The synergistic relationship between E. faecalis and L. arobinosus occurs in which E. faecalis require folic acid
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Signatures of wave erosion in Titan’s coasts
The shorelines of Titan’s hydrocarbon seas trace flooded erosional landforms such as river valleys; however, it isunclear whether coastal erosion has subsequently altered these shorelines. Spacecraft observations and theo-retical models suggest that wind may cause waves to form on Titan’s seas, potentially driving coastal erosion,but the observational evidence of waves is indirect, and the processes affecting shoreline evolution on Titanremain unknown. No widely accepted framework exists for using shoreline morphology to quantitatively dis-cern coastal erosion mechanisms, even on Earth, where the dominant mechanisms are known. We combinelandscape evolution models with measurements of shoreline shape on Earth to characterize how differentcoastal erosion mechanisms affect shoreline morphology. Applying this framework to Titan, we find that theshorelines of Titan’s seas are most consistent with flooded landscapes that subsequently have been eroded bywaves, rather than a uniform erosional process or no coastal erosion, particularly if wave growth saturates atfetch lengths of tens of kilometers.
Methods of grain storage Structures in India.pdf
•Post-harvestlossesaccountforabout10%oftotalfoodgrainsduetounscientificstorage,insects,rodents,micro-organismsetc.,
•Totalfoodgrainproductioninindiais311milliontonnesandstorageis145mt.InIndia,annualstoragelosseshavebeenestimated14mtworthofRs.7,000croreinwhichinsectsaloneaccountfornearlyRs.1,300crores.
•InIndiaoutofthetotalproduction,about30%ismarketablesurplus
•Remaining70%isretainedandstoredbyfarmersforconsumption,seed,feed.Hence,growerneedstoragefacilitytoholdaportionofproducetosellwhenthemarketingpriceisfavourable
•TradersandCo-operativesatmarketcentresneedstoragestructurestoholdgrainswhenthetransportfacilityisinadequate
seed production, Nursery & Gardening.pdf
This presentation offers a general idea of the structure of seed, seed production, management of seeds and its allied technologies. It also offers the concept of gene erosion and the practices used to control it. Nursery and gardening have been widely explored along with their importance in the related domain.
Quality assurance B.pharm 6th semester BP606T UNIT 5
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Compositions of iron-meteorite parent bodies constrainthe structure of the pr...
Magmatic iron-meteorite parent bodies are the earliest planetesimals in the Solar System,and they preserve information about conditions and planet-forming processes in thesolar nebula. In this study, we include comprehensive elemental compositions andfractional-crystallization modeling for iron meteorites from the cores of five differenti-ated asteroids from the inner Solar System. Together with previous results of metalliccores from the outer Solar System, we conclude that asteroidal cores from the outerSolar System have smaller sizes, elevated siderophile-element abundances, and simplercrystallization processes than those from the inner Solar System. These differences arerelated to the formation locations of the parent asteroids because the solar protoplane-tary disk varied in redox conditions, elemental distributions, and dynamics at differentheliocentric distances. Using highly siderophile-element data from iron meteorites, wereconstruct the distribution of calcium-aluminum-rich inclusions (CAIs) across theprotoplanetary disk within the first million years of Solar-System history. CAIs, the firstsolids to condense in the Solar System, formed close to the Sun. They were, however,concentrated within the outer disk and depleted within the inner disk. Future modelsof the structure and evolution of the protoplanetary disk should account for this dis-tribution pattern of CAIs.
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Compositions of iron-meteorite parent bodies constrainthe structure of the pr...
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Counting protons, neutrons, and electrons in ions
- 1. Counting Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons in Ions
- 2. An ion is a charged substance • A neutral substance has equal numbers of protons and electrons. – Na has 11 protons and 11 electrons – Cl has 17 protons and 17 electrons • An ion either has more or fewer electrons than protons – Na+ has 11 protons and 10 electrons – Cl- has 17 protons and 18 electrons
- 3. Ions and Atoms have very different properties.
- 4. Ions are formed by gaining or losing electrons. • Sodium loses an electron to become the sodium ion: Na → Na+ + e-p+ 11 11 e- 11 10 1 • Chlorine gains an electron to become the chloride ion: Cl + e- → Cl-p+ 17 17 e- 17 1 18
- 5. Misconception Note! • Atoms only gain and lose electrons – If an atom gains an electron, it gets a negative charge, because it now has more negatives than positives. – If an atom loses an electron, it gets a positive charge, because it now has more positives than negatives. • Atoms do not gain and lose protons. The number of protons stays the same for an atom.
- 6. Some examples – determine the answer then turn the page to check. • How many protons and electrons are in the following? Substance Number of p+ Number of e- Mg 12 Mg2+ S 16 S2- Fe 26 Fe3+ N 7 N3-
- 7. Some answers • How many protons and electrons are in the following? Substance Number of p+ Number of e- Mg 12 12 Mg2+ 12 10 S 16 16 S2- 16 18 Fe 26 26 Fe3+ 26 23 N 7 7 N3- 7 10