This document summarizes the uses and functions of copular verbs in English. It discusses how copular verbs are used to associate attributes with subjects. The main copular verb is be, which can take noun phrases, adjective phrases, prepositional phrases, or clauses as subjects. Other common copular verbs include seem, appear, remain, keep, stay, look, feel, sound, smell, and taste. These verbs have specific patterns of use and meanings depending on the type of complement they take. The document categorizes copular verbs as either expressing a state of existence or a sensory perception.

1. 140 Chapter 5: Verbs GRAMMAR BITE F
Do:
As a main verb, do is a general transitive verb of action (e.g. do some work).
~c It often combines with a noun phrase to form idiomatic expressions (e.g. do
the dishes).
B- As a main verb, do can also function as a transitive pro-verb (do it, do that)
or an intransitive pro-verb (e.g. I must have done.)
As an auxiliary verb, do is used in the do-support construction for forming
negation and questions (e.g. Didn't you know?).
Auxdiary do is also used for emphatic meaning (e.g. Oh do shut up!).
5.16 The copula be, and other copular ~ verbs
Copular verbs are used to associate an attribute with the subject of the clause.
The attribute is usually expressed by the subject predicative following the verb.
For example, in the clause:
You're very stupid. ( c o w )
you is the subject, and the phrase very stupid is the subject predicative that
specifies the attribute that is associated with the subject. The copula be
(contracted as 're) links this attribute to the subject.
Many copular verbs are also used to locate the subject of the clause in time
or space. Times and places are expressed by an obligatory adverbial of position,
duration, or direction that occurs after the copula. For example:
I was in the kitchen. (cow)
Several verbs-like go, grow, and come-can function as either a copular verb or
a transitivelintransitive verb, depending on the context:
copular verb:
It makes your teeth and your bones grow stronx and healthy. (co~v)
It's beginning to go bad for you. (FICT)
Your prophecy of last night has come m. (FICT)
transitive verb:
So you said she started to grow sesame herbs. (cow)
intransitive verb:
It was when Wharton Horricker and I went to Mexico. (FICT)
He came from the far north. (FICT~)
There are many verbs that can function as copular verbs. They fall into two main
categories: current copular verbs and result copular verbs.

2. Functions of cbpular verbs-
A Current copular verbs
Current copular verbs have two subclasses. The first subclass identifies attributes
that are in a continuing state of existence. This includes: be, seem, appear, keep,
remain, stay. The other subclass reports sensory perceptions. This includes: look,
feel, sound, smell, taste.
state-of-existence:
We are all human. (FICT)
I may have appeared a little short with my daughter that morning. (FICT)
David Elsworth seemed quite satisfied with the performance of Barnbrook.
(NEWS)
sensory perception:
I really do look awful. (co~v)
Ooh that feels good. (cow)
They just sound really bad when they're recorded on. (co~v)
6 Result copular verbs
Result copular verbs identify an attribute that is the result of a process of change:
She'll end up pregnant. (co~v)
His breathing became less frantic. (FICT)
My heart grew sick and I couldn't eat. (FICT)
Other result copular verbs include: become, get, go, grow, prove, come, turn, turn
out, end up, wind up.
5.17 Functions of copular verbs
Copular verbs differ in their meanings and in the complements that they take.
Overall, most copular verbs occur with an adjective phrase as the subject
predicative, but some verbs are also strongly associated with other structures,
such as a noun phrase or complement clause. Some verbs are limited to one type
of complement, while others occur with many. In the following subsections, we
review the associations between the most common copular verbs and their
complements, and discuss how these associations reflect the differences in
meaning and function of the verbs.
5.17.1 Current copular verbs: state of existence
The copula be is by far the most common verb in English. Surprisingly, the
copula be differs from most lexical verbs because it is much more frequent in
academic prose than in conversation, newspapers, or fiction. Be also occurs with
a wide range of complements.
Unlike most copular verbs, be occurs most commonly with a noun phrase as
subject predicative. In these structures, the noun phrase following be has two
common functions: to characterize the subject noun phrase in some way, or to
identify the subject noun phrase:

3. 142 Chapter 5: Verbs GRAMMAR BITE F
characterizing:
Oh, my dad was a great guy, too. (cow)
Tomorrow could be a sunny day. (co~vt)
identifying:
That's our back yard. (cow)
The kernel is the part of the plant of greatest value. (ACAD~)
Adjective phrases are also very common as subject predicatives of be. The most
common of these predicative adjectives express stance. In conversation, these are
mostly general evaluative terms, such as right, good, sure, nice, and funny. In most
cases, these adjectives occur without complements after them:
That wasn't very nice. (co~v)
It was & though. (co~v)
In contrast, academic prose uses a larger range of predicative adjectives that
express more specific evaluations, such as important, possible, necessary, dificult,
and useful. In most cases, these adjectives occur with a complement clause or
prepositional phrase. The predicative adjective expresses an evaluation that
applies to the following clause or phrase:
It is also important to gain the cooperation of workshop participants.
(ACAD t )
It is possible to have more than one major hypothesis. (ACAD~)
The common predicative adjectives occurring with be are described fully in 7.8.
Prepositional phrases are much less common as complements of be. They are
used for two functions:
as a subject predicative describing a characteristic of the subject:
Umuofia was in a festival mood. (FICT)
The resistive voltage drop is in phase with the current. (ACAD)
as an adverbial expressing position or direction:
I wish you were at the shack with me last night. (cow)
The houses are in a conservation area. (NEWS)
Finally, be sometimes occurs with a complement clause as subject predicative:
The capital is to be provided by the French government. (NEWS~)
But the danger was that the pound would fall further than planned. (NEWS)
Table 5.1 summarizes the patterns of use for five other state-of-existence copular
verbs. These verbs are all relatively common but far less common than be. Seem
and appear have a variety of functions, while remain, keep, and stay all mark the
continuation of a state.
Table 5.1 State-of-existence copular verbs (in addition to be)
most common
verb frequency complements examples
seem most common to-complement clause This seemed to work. (FICT)
copular verb
other than be

4. Functions of copular verbs=
7
'a& 5.1 continued
most common
verb frequency complements
adjectives, especially
conveying attitudes,
surprise and possibility in
fiction
adjectives of likelihood
in academic prose, with
extraposed that-clauses
noun phrase as subject
predicative, especially
with perceptions that are
not necessarily accurate
prepositional phrase
expressing an attribute
of the subject
..... . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . .
appear less common to-complement clause
than seem
adjectives of likelihood
in academic prose and
news
remain most common of adjectives, often
the three reporting absence of
continuation change
verbs;
particularly
common in
academic prose
and news
typical adjectives:
unchanged, constant,
Intact, mot~onless,
immobile, low, high,
open, closed,
controversial, uncertain,
unknown, obscure
examples
Sometimes it seemed
impossible that he should
fail. (FICT)
He seemed surprised by
that. (FICT)
It seems likely that
practical work has helped
to develop these skills in
some students. (ACAD)
It seems clear that more
meals will be cooked over
charcoal in the future.
(ACAD~)
Fijisankei, itself privately
owned and independent,
seems the ideal partner.
NEWS^)
Now he seemed in control.
(FICT)
Most of the time he seems
like such a normal guy.
(FI~
. . . . . . . . . .
The inheritance of leaf
angle appears
polygenic. (ACAD)
There was never a moment
when it appeared likely
that we could get them.
(NEWS)
The courts have appeared
willing to go beyond the
rules of neutral justice.
(ACAD)
..... .... . . ...
Next Friday's date for the
final remains unchanged.
(NEWS)
The opening of the oviduct
remains mt. (ACAD)

5. 144 Chapter 5: Verbs GRAMMAR BITE F
Table 5.1 continued
most common
verb frequency complements examples
keep less common typical adjectives: alive, It's funny how he manages
than remain awake, quiet, silent, to keep awake. (co~v)
secret, busy, fit, close,
warm
subject of keep is usually
an animate being
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
stay least common of typical adjectives: awake,
the three dry, sober, alive, clear,
continuation loyal, healthy
verbs
subject of stay is usually
human
He was just trying to keep
warm. (FICT)
.... .... . .
I mean, if you stay =.
(CONV)
Meanwhile, Millie's
mistress stayed IOJ$ to her
husband's ambitions. (FICT)
5.17.2 Current copular verbs: sensory perceptions
The patterns of use for sensory copular verbs are summarized in Table 5.2.
Sensory copular verbs-look, feel, sound, smell, taste-occur with adjectival
complements to report positive or negative evaluations. For example:
Do I look nice? (co~v)
The food smelled gt& to her. (FICT)
Table 5.2 Sensory copular verbs
verb frequency
look very common in
fiction; relatively
common in
conversation
. , . , . . , . .......
feel very common in
fiction; moderately
common in news
and conversation
sound most common in
fictlon and
conversation
most common functions and
complements examples
often evaluates physlcal
appearance
common adjectives: awful,
different, happy, lovely, pale,
puzzled, sad, small, surprised,
temble, t~redw, ell, young
reports an assessment of physical
or mental state of being
Oh he does look sad,
doesn't he? (CONV)~
Quite frankly she
looked terrible. (FICT)
You look lovely. (FICT)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
It'll make you feel
better. (NEWS)
My hands feel &d.
(FICT)
I always feel guilty
passing Mike's
house. (CONV)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
She doesn't sound
common adjectives: ashamed,
bad, better, cold, good, guilty,
sick, sure, tired, uncomfortable,
uneasy
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
literal use: evaluations of sound
perceptions
common adjectives: good, nice,
silly, stupid, interesting, awful,
angry, sad, strange
additional use: reactions to
ideas/suggestions
anymore. (FICT)
He looked and
sounded awful. (FICT)
Oh how nice. That
sounds gooo' to me.
(CONV)

6. Functions of copular verbs=
*able 5.2 continued
most common functions and
verb frequency complements examples
I know it sounds
stupid, but I wanted
to go. (CONV)
................................................. ......
smell generally rare reports evaluations of smell It smells funny in
perceptions here. (CONV)
common adjectives: awful, bad,
funny, musty, odd, rotten,
terrible, delicious, fresh, good,
lovely, nice
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
taste rare; occasional reports evaluations of taste They just taste
occurrences in perceptions awful. (CONV)
~O~~versatiaonnd common adjectives: awful,
fiction horrible, nice, wonderful
Here, the copular verb identifies the sense (e.g. sight, hearing), while the
predicative adjective reports the evaluation. The general evaluating adjectives
nice, good, and bad occur commonly as subject predicative with all five sensory
copular verbs.
5.17.3 Result copular verbs
The verbs become, get, go, grow, prove, come, turn, turn out, end up, and wind up
are all used to describe a process of change. However, despite this general
similarity, these verbs differ greatly in their specific meanings, collocational
preferences, and register distributions.
The result copular verb become is especially common in academic prose and
fiction. It is used to describe the process involved in changing from one state to
another. In academic prose, it often refers to an impersonal process of moving
from a state of ignorance or disbelief to one of knowledge or belief (i.e. without
mentioning individual people who experience the change). The adjectives clear
and apparent are most common with this function, but there are a number of
other adjectives that occur with become, including dificult, evident, important,
possible.
In the joint-stock company, the social character of production has become
apparent. (ACAD)
It soon becomes &r that there is much more to comprehension than
vocabulary. (ACAD~)
Performance and functionality only become important with Release 3.
(ACAD t
In fiction, become usually refers to a specific person. It describes a change in that
person's state of awareness or state of being:
Raymond soon became aware that his strategy and hard work was paying
dividends. (FICT)

7. 146 Chapter 5: Verbs GRAMMAR BlTE F
It all became &r to me when 1 reached street level. (FICT)
I became &t, overwhelmed suddenly by the great gulf between us. (FICT~)
?-@&
The result copular verb get is usually used to describe a person changing to a new
state. Get is very common, especially in conversation and fiction, and it has many
uses, describing both physical and mental changes. The adjectives ready and
worse are the most common subject predicatives with get, but a number of other
adjectives recur: angry, bigger, better, bored, cold, dressed (up), drunk, lost, mad,
mixed (up), old, older, pissed (om, sick, tired, upset, wet. Many of these mark some
affective or attitudinal stance. For example:
Well he's only gonna get m. (cow)
And if she doesn't win, she either gets upset and cries or gets an~ry(. cow)
And people get pissed ofi don't they? (co~v<) note: pissed off is slang and
may be offensive to some people>
C -8d-
The copular verb go is usually used to describe a change towards an undesirable
state, especially in conversation and fiction. Go describes changes experienced by
humans and other natural processes. The adjectives crazy, mad, and wrong are
the most common complements of go, but several other adjectives recur: bad,
cold, deaf, funny, limp, quiet, red, wild.
You can't go wronx with that, can you? (cow)
Yeah I know. 1 would go &. (cow)
Mama will go crazy. (FICT)
D Less common result copular verbs
Although become, get, and go are the most common result copular verbs, several
others deserve mention. These verbs and their functions are summarized in Table
5.3.
Major points of GRAMMAR BlTE E: Copular verbs
Copular verbs are used to express a relationship between the subject of the
clause and an attribute.
Copular verbs usually take an obligatory subject predicative.
Some copular verbs can also occur with an obligatory adverbial.
Many different verbs can function as copulas. These verbs can be grouped
into two major categories: current copular verbs and result copular verbs.
> Current copular verbs express states of existence or sensory perceptions (e.g.
be, feel).
> Result copular verbs express the result of a process of change (e.g. become,
turn out).
The copular verbs differ in their meanings and in the complements that
they can take.
There are highly systematic patterns of use associated with copular verbs + complements.

8. Functions of copular verbs-
Tabk 5.3 Less common result copular verbs
most common functions and
verb frequency complements examples
come generally rare, usually describes a change to It hterally is a dream
occurs mainly in a better condition come g. NEW S^)
fiction and news recurring adjectives: a11ve. Slowly his face came
awake, clean, loose, short, true, and he grinned.
unstuck (~1~7)
grow primarily used in describes gradual change We should grow& d
fiction often makes an implicit here together. (FICT)
comparison with an earlier The wlnd dropped and it
state through use of suddenly grew cold. (FICT)
comparative adjective as The girl's deep black
complement eyes grew darker. (FICT)
recurring adjectives: angry. She continued to lose
big, bright, cold. dark. hot, weight and grow
large. old, pale, tall. tired, weaker. (FI~~)
warm, weak, bigger, darker, -
larger, louder, older, shorter,
smaller, stronger, warmer,
weaker, worse
prove used primarly in reports an assessment Looking for tourist
academic Prose recurring adjectives: costly, highlights in
and news decisive, d~fficultf,a tal, Montepulciano can
necessary, popular, possible, Prove difficult (NEWS)
successful, suitable, useful, He was confident the
wrong units would prove
popular with travellers.
(NEWS)
Yet it has proved
necessary to attempt this
task. (ACAD~)
turn occas~onally used turn + adjective describes The canals in the suburbs
in fict~onr;a re in change In appearance; typically appear to turn plack.
other registers refers to color changes (FICT)
recurring adjectives: black, She had turned pale and
brown, (bright) red, white, pale her voice shook. (FICT)
turn out generally rare emphasizes the end-point of a A lot of times they
process wlth simple positive or turned out wrong. (FICT)
negative evaluatron The marriage will turn
recurring adjectives: good, out all right. (FICT)
~gstyn, ~ce,( all) rrght, wrong
end up generally rare describe an unintended And this argument went
and wind negative event or state on.
UP Danny ended up in tears
and I ended up a
w.(C ONV)
He says Marilyn ended
up pregnant after her
affair with President
Kennedy. (NEWS)
And the young bucks
who tore the place apart
~nvariably wound up
dead. (FICT~)