1) Cooling towers are commonly used to dissipate heat from water-cooled refrigeration and air conditioning systems. They work by exposing water to atmospheric air, allowing some of the water to evaporate and transfer heat from the remaining liquid water into the air stream.
2) There are two main types of cooling towers: direct contact towers which expose water directly to air, and indirect contact towers which involve two separate fluid circuits that transfer heat indirectly.
3) Cooling towers can be categorized as natural draft, forced draft, or induced draft depending on whether they use natural convection or fans to force or draw air through the tower.
Fouling, in technical language, it is the general term of unwanted material which is accumulating on surfaces, such as inside pipes, machines or heat exchanger.
The document discusses the design of pressure vessels. It covers the important design phase carried out using codes to ensure safety. Pressure vessels work under internal or external pressure at various temperatures. Common materials used are carbon steel, stainless steel, and titanium. The main components of a pressure vessel are the shell, dished ends, nozzles, manways, and lugs. The document focuses on the design of the shell, dished ends, and nozzles. It provides equations and diagrams to illustrate how their minimum thicknesses are calculated based on factors like internal pressure, radius, and stress values. Various types of dished ends and nozzle constructions are also described.
The document provides details of a cooling tower renovation project at a fertilizer plant. Key points:
- The existing cooling tower packing, drift eliminators, and nozzles needed replacement as their working life had expired after 7-10 years.
- Modifications included installing new packing, drift eliminators, dynamic Ecojet nozzles, and a vibration monitoring system.
- The project was completed on time and under budget using mostly local labor. It is expected to improve cooling tower performance and reliability.
- Lessons learned include using local labor for most tasks and marking scaffolding pipes to streamline future work. The renovation reduced circulating water temperature ranges and approach.
The document discusses the design phase of constructing pressure vessels. It explains that the design phase is critical and must be done carefully according to codes and standards to ensure safety. It then provides details on the typical components of a pressure vessel that are designed, including the shell, dished ends, nozzles, and the formulas used to calculate thicknesses and stresses for these components. Various types of pressure vessels, materials used, and nozzle constructions are also outlined.
This document is a report on cooling towers submitted by a group of 5 chemical engineering students at the Gujarat Technological University. It provides an introduction to cooling towers, describing their main components and functions. It discusses the key parameters for evaluating cooling tower performance, including range, approach, effectiveness, cooling capacity, and evaporation loss. The primary goal of cooling towers is to reject heat from cooling water circuits into the atmosphere through evaporation.
After crude oil is desalted and dehydrated, it is separated into fractions through distillation. However, the distilled fractions cannot be used directly and require further processing due to differences between crude oil properties and market needs. The complexity of refining processes is also due to environmental regulations that require cleaner products. Distillation involves heating crude oil to separate it based on boiling points, but the distilled fractions need additional conversion processes before they can be used or sold.
This document provides an overview of an experiment analyzing the performance of a mechanical draft cooling tower. The experiment varied the water flow rate and fan speed to measure water temperature changes. The Merkel equation was then used to calculate the "tower characteristic" or coefficient of performance. As the water to air flow rate ratio (LG) increased, the tower characteristic and efficiency decreased, matching the Merkel theory. The conclusion is that higher water flow rates decrease the cooling tower's efficiency and characteristic.
Fouling, in technical language, it is the general term of unwanted material which is accumulating on surfaces, such as inside pipes, machines or heat exchanger.
The document discusses the design of pressure vessels. It covers the important design phase carried out using codes to ensure safety. Pressure vessels work under internal or external pressure at various temperatures. Common materials used are carbon steel, stainless steel, and titanium. The main components of a pressure vessel are the shell, dished ends, nozzles, manways, and lugs. The document focuses on the design of the shell, dished ends, and nozzles. It provides equations and diagrams to illustrate how their minimum thicknesses are calculated based on factors like internal pressure, radius, and stress values. Various types of dished ends and nozzle constructions are also described.
The document provides details of a cooling tower renovation project at a fertilizer plant. Key points:
- The existing cooling tower packing, drift eliminators, and nozzles needed replacement as their working life had expired after 7-10 years.
- Modifications included installing new packing, drift eliminators, dynamic Ecojet nozzles, and a vibration monitoring system.
- The project was completed on time and under budget using mostly local labor. It is expected to improve cooling tower performance and reliability.
- Lessons learned include using local labor for most tasks and marking scaffolding pipes to streamline future work. The renovation reduced circulating water temperature ranges and approach.
The document discusses the design phase of constructing pressure vessels. It explains that the design phase is critical and must be done carefully according to codes and standards to ensure safety. It then provides details on the typical components of a pressure vessel that are designed, including the shell, dished ends, nozzles, and the formulas used to calculate thicknesses and stresses for these components. Various types of pressure vessels, materials used, and nozzle constructions are also outlined.
This document is a report on cooling towers submitted by a group of 5 chemical engineering students at the Gujarat Technological University. It provides an introduction to cooling towers, describing their main components and functions. It discusses the key parameters for evaluating cooling tower performance, including range, approach, effectiveness, cooling capacity, and evaporation loss. The primary goal of cooling towers is to reject heat from cooling water circuits into the atmosphere through evaporation.
After crude oil is desalted and dehydrated, it is separated into fractions through distillation. However, the distilled fractions cannot be used directly and require further processing due to differences between crude oil properties and market needs. The complexity of refining processes is also due to environmental regulations that require cleaner products. Distillation involves heating crude oil to separate it based on boiling points, but the distilled fractions need additional conversion processes before they can be used or sold.
This document provides an overview of an experiment analyzing the performance of a mechanical draft cooling tower. The experiment varied the water flow rate and fan speed to measure water temperature changes. The Merkel equation was then used to calculate the "tower characteristic" or coefficient of performance. As the water to air flow rate ratio (LG) increased, the tower characteristic and efficiency decreased, matching the Merkel theory. The conclusion is that higher water flow rates decrease the cooling tower's efficiency and characteristic.
This document provides information on cooling towers, including types, components, performance parameters for assessment, and opportunities for improved energy efficiency. It discusses the main types of cooling towers as natural draft, mechanical draft (including forced draft, induced draft counter flow and cross flow), and compares fill media options. Key performance parameters covered include range, approach, effectiveness, cooling capacity, and cycles of concentration. Energy efficiency opportunities discussed include selecting an appropriately sized tower, optimizing fill media, improving water distribution and treatment, upgrading fans and motors, and reducing drift losses.
The document discusses different types of heat exchangers: direct contact, direct transfer (recuperative), and storage (regenerative). Direct transfer type heat exchangers like shell and tube, plate and frame transfer heat continuously through a dividing wall without mixing fluids. Storage type heat exchangers temporarily store heat and transfer it between fluids. Common applications of shell and tube heat exchangers include food/beverage, marine, air processing, and chemicals. Plate heat exchangers are used for milk pasteurization and brine cooling. Storage heat exchangers are used in steel melting and blast furnaces.
This document is a report on a study of cooling towers conducted by five mechanical engineering students at Delhi Technological University. It provides an overview of cooling towers, including their components, materials, types, and ways to assess performance and increase energy efficiency. The two main types are natural draft towers, which use temperature differences to circulate air without fans, and mechanical draft towers, which use large fans. The report evaluates selecting the right tower, fill media effects, pumps, distribution systems, fans and more to optimize efficiency. It includes acknowledgments, objectives, figures, tables, and conclusions from the study.
The document discusses factors that influence the design of vessels used in industrial processes. It focuses on selecting the appropriate vessel type based on the material properties, operating conditions, and intended function. The main types of vessels discussed are open vessels, closed cylindrical vessels with flat or conical bottoms, and spherical/modified spherical vessels. Criteria for selecting each type include operating pressure and temperature, material hazards, and storage volume.
Control of Continuous Distillation Columns
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF A DISTILLATION COLUMN
5 REGULATORY CONTROL
5.1 Composition Control
5.2 Mass Balance Control
5.3 Design of Feedback Control Systems
5.4 Pressure and Condensation Control
5.5 Reboiler Control
6 DISTURBANCE COMPENSATION
6.1 Feed-forward Control
6.2 Cascade Control
6.3 Internal Reflux Control
7 CONSTRAINT CONTROL
7.1 Override Controls
7.2 Flooding
7.3 Limiting Control
8 MORE ADVANCED TOPICS
8.1 Temperature Position Control
8.2 Inferential Measurement
8.1 Floating Pressure Control
8.2 Model Based Predictive Control
8.1 Control of Side-streams
8.2 Extractive/Azeotropic Systems
9 REFERENCES
TABLES
1 SYMPTOMS OF IMBALANCE AND THE REGULATORY VARIABLES
2 PRACTICAL LINKAGES BETWEEN CONTROL
(P, R, B, C) AND REGULATION VARIABLES
(h, r, d, b, c, v)
3 COMPOSITION REGULATION
4 COMPOSITION REGULATION - VERY SMALL FLOWS
This document provides an overview of a training session on energy equipment refrigeration and air conditioning systems. It discusses types of refrigeration including vapor compression and vapor absorption. It also covers assessing the performance of refrigeration and air conditioning systems, such as measuring tons of refrigeration and coefficient of performance. Finally, it lists several energy efficiency opportunities for refrigeration and AC systems, such as optimizing heat exchange, multi-staging systems, and capacity control of compressors.
Design Calculation of Venting for Atmospheric & Low Pressure Storage TanksKushagra Saxena
Storage Tanks are a very important part of a petroleum Industry, This software is based on the API Std. 2000, which calculates the design of Venting and its capacity for low pressure storage & atmospheric storage tanks in case of normal venting, due to thermal changes, and in case of fire exposure.
If you are in need of this software, Kindly contact at saxena.95kushagra@gmail.com
This document provides an overview and training on petroleum storage tanks. It discusses tank design types including fixed roof, floating roof, and pressurized storage tanks. It covers tank structure, fittings, inspection, measurement, and safety. The training outlines the goals of identifying tank types and equipment, understanding limitations, calculating volumes, and safe operation. Tank design considerations include product properties, stability calculations, and foundation types.
This document outlines the mechanical design requirements and factors for storage tanks. It discusses key considerations like shell thickness determination, temperature effects, pressure, liquid properties, and corrosion allowance. Design codes and standards like API 650 provide guidelines for tank stress analysis and thickness calculations using methods like the 1-foot and variable-design-point approaches. Floating roof tanks are described as having advantages for reducing evaporation but being more complex to design and construct than fixed roof tanks. Design data ranges are also presented for temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind speed, and earthquake conditions.
Mechanical seals provide a running seal between rotating and stationary parts in pumps. They have advantages over conventional packing such as reduced leakage to meet environmental standards, lower maintenance costs, and ability to seal higher pressures. The basic components of a mechanical seal are the primary seal faces (one stationary, one rotating), secondary seals, and hardware. Seals work by creating a tight sealing contact between flat faces, and can be classified by type (pusher, unbalanced, etc.) and arrangement (single, double, cartridge). Proper seal selection requires considering the liquid, pressure, temperature, liquid characteristics, and reliability/emission needs.
The document provides an overview of petroleum storage tank training, covering topics such as:
- Tank design types including fixed roof, internal floating roof, and floating roof tanks
- Selection of tank type based on product properties and volatility
- Tank structure including bottom/floor design, bottom and shell plates, and foundation types
- Stability calculations and anchor requirements for withstanding wind loads
- Tank inspection and safety procedures
The training aims to identify tank components, understand tank limitations, perform calculations, and operate tanks safely.
Ship refrigeration plants play a vital role in transporting perishable cargo by maintaining the appropriate temperatures. The main components of refrigeration plants include compressors, condensers, receivers, driers, expansion valves, evaporators, and control units. Refrigeration plants use the vapor compression cycle to remove heat from cargo holds or crew areas, circulating a refrigerant through the components to absorb, compress, condense, expand, and evaporate heat.
This document provides an overview of early sizing considerations for pressure safety valves (PSVs). It discusses important terminologies, types of PSVs, sizing basis, applicable standards, and the early sizing procedure. The procedure involves selecting possible orifice areas to meet capacity requirements. The objectives of early sizing are to remove holds in piping and instrumentation diagrams and allow early release of piping designs. The document also discusses inter-discipline interfaces, lessons learned, and quality management system documents related to PSV sizing.
PROCESS STORAGE TANK LAH & LAHH LEVEL CALCULATIONVijay Sarathy
The document contains parameters for a process storage tank including a diameter of 14 feet, height of 18 feet, normal liquid level of 6 feet, and pump inflow of 250 USGPM. It details calculations for the liquid alarm high-high level of 14.74 feet based on filling the tank from the overfill level to that point within 15 minutes, and liquid alarm high level of 8.23 feet calculated from filling within 45 minutes.
This document is a dissertation submitted by Kuan, Siew Yeng to the University of Southern Queensland in fulfillment of the requirements for a Bachelor of Engineering (Mechanical Engineering) degree. The dissertation focuses on designing a new floating roof tank. It provides background on floating roof tanks, relevant design codes and standards, and discusses design considerations and methods for the shell, roof, fittings and accessories. The goal is to develop basic rules and procedures for designing, constructing and operating floating roof tanks based on a case study.
This document summarizes the control design of an industrial grade steady state distillation column and associated production equipment at Vasudha Pharma Chem Limited in Visakhapatnam. It discusses the different types of industrial grade distillation equipment, design and analysis factors to consider, classifications of distillation processes as batch or continuous, components of a distillation column including the rectifying and stripping sections, and general design considerations for the column. The document provides a detailed study of an industrial distillation column used to separate a methanol-water mixture.
This document outlines the procedures and results from an experiment on gas absorption using an absorption column. The experiment examined the air pressure drop across the column as air flow rate was increased for different fixed water flow rates. Pressure drop was recorded and plotted against air flow rate. The experimental flooding points where compared to theoretical calculations, with errors ranging from 11.1% to 20%. The results showed that pressure drop increased with air flow rate as expected, identifying the flooding points where liquid could no longer flow down the column.
This document is a research project submitted for a degree in Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering on cooling towers. It includes 4 chapters that discuss mechanical components, thermal performance testing, and electrical components of cooling towers. The introduction provides background on cooling towers and how they work to remove heat from water through evaporation. It also discusses types of cooling towers, including natural draft and mechanical draft, and covers psychrometrics and heat transfer principles.
1) Mechanical draft cooling towers use fans to circulate air through the tower to maximize heat transfer between water and air. There are two main types - counter-flow and induced draft.
2) Counter-flow towers have water flowing down and air flowing up, while induced draft towers have water flowing in at the top and air drawn in at the bottom and exiting at the top.
3) The operational cost of cooling towers includes electricity costs from pumps and fans circulating water and air, as well as water costs which are influenced by makeup water usage from evaporation and blowdown. Minimizing these costs can improve efficiency.
This document provides information on cooling towers, including types, components, performance parameters for assessment, and opportunities for improved energy efficiency. It discusses the main types of cooling towers as natural draft, mechanical draft (including forced draft, induced draft counter flow and cross flow), and compares fill media options. Key performance parameters covered include range, approach, effectiveness, cooling capacity, and cycles of concentration. Energy efficiency opportunities discussed include selecting an appropriately sized tower, optimizing fill media, improving water distribution and treatment, upgrading fans and motors, and reducing drift losses.
The document discusses different types of heat exchangers: direct contact, direct transfer (recuperative), and storage (regenerative). Direct transfer type heat exchangers like shell and tube, plate and frame transfer heat continuously through a dividing wall without mixing fluids. Storage type heat exchangers temporarily store heat and transfer it between fluids. Common applications of shell and tube heat exchangers include food/beverage, marine, air processing, and chemicals. Plate heat exchangers are used for milk pasteurization and brine cooling. Storage heat exchangers are used in steel melting and blast furnaces.
This document is a report on a study of cooling towers conducted by five mechanical engineering students at Delhi Technological University. It provides an overview of cooling towers, including their components, materials, types, and ways to assess performance and increase energy efficiency. The two main types are natural draft towers, which use temperature differences to circulate air without fans, and mechanical draft towers, which use large fans. The report evaluates selecting the right tower, fill media effects, pumps, distribution systems, fans and more to optimize efficiency. It includes acknowledgments, objectives, figures, tables, and conclusions from the study.
The document discusses factors that influence the design of vessels used in industrial processes. It focuses on selecting the appropriate vessel type based on the material properties, operating conditions, and intended function. The main types of vessels discussed are open vessels, closed cylindrical vessels with flat or conical bottoms, and spherical/modified spherical vessels. Criteria for selecting each type include operating pressure and temperature, material hazards, and storage volume.
Control of Continuous Distillation Columns
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF A DISTILLATION COLUMN
5 REGULATORY CONTROL
5.1 Composition Control
5.2 Mass Balance Control
5.3 Design of Feedback Control Systems
5.4 Pressure and Condensation Control
5.5 Reboiler Control
6 DISTURBANCE COMPENSATION
6.1 Feed-forward Control
6.2 Cascade Control
6.3 Internal Reflux Control
7 CONSTRAINT CONTROL
7.1 Override Controls
7.2 Flooding
7.3 Limiting Control
8 MORE ADVANCED TOPICS
8.1 Temperature Position Control
8.2 Inferential Measurement
8.1 Floating Pressure Control
8.2 Model Based Predictive Control
8.1 Control of Side-streams
8.2 Extractive/Azeotropic Systems
9 REFERENCES
TABLES
1 SYMPTOMS OF IMBALANCE AND THE REGULATORY VARIABLES
2 PRACTICAL LINKAGES BETWEEN CONTROL
(P, R, B, C) AND REGULATION VARIABLES
(h, r, d, b, c, v)
3 COMPOSITION REGULATION
4 COMPOSITION REGULATION - VERY SMALL FLOWS
This document provides an overview of a training session on energy equipment refrigeration and air conditioning systems. It discusses types of refrigeration including vapor compression and vapor absorption. It also covers assessing the performance of refrigeration and air conditioning systems, such as measuring tons of refrigeration and coefficient of performance. Finally, it lists several energy efficiency opportunities for refrigeration and AC systems, such as optimizing heat exchange, multi-staging systems, and capacity control of compressors.
Design Calculation of Venting for Atmospheric & Low Pressure Storage TanksKushagra Saxena
Storage Tanks are a very important part of a petroleum Industry, This software is based on the API Std. 2000, which calculates the design of Venting and its capacity for low pressure storage & atmospheric storage tanks in case of normal venting, due to thermal changes, and in case of fire exposure.
If you are in need of this software, Kindly contact at saxena.95kushagra@gmail.com
This document provides an overview and training on petroleum storage tanks. It discusses tank design types including fixed roof, floating roof, and pressurized storage tanks. It covers tank structure, fittings, inspection, measurement, and safety. The training outlines the goals of identifying tank types and equipment, understanding limitations, calculating volumes, and safe operation. Tank design considerations include product properties, stability calculations, and foundation types.
This document outlines the mechanical design requirements and factors for storage tanks. It discusses key considerations like shell thickness determination, temperature effects, pressure, liquid properties, and corrosion allowance. Design codes and standards like API 650 provide guidelines for tank stress analysis and thickness calculations using methods like the 1-foot and variable-design-point approaches. Floating roof tanks are described as having advantages for reducing evaporation but being more complex to design and construct than fixed roof tanks. Design data ranges are also presented for temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind speed, and earthquake conditions.
Mechanical seals provide a running seal between rotating and stationary parts in pumps. They have advantages over conventional packing such as reduced leakage to meet environmental standards, lower maintenance costs, and ability to seal higher pressures. The basic components of a mechanical seal are the primary seal faces (one stationary, one rotating), secondary seals, and hardware. Seals work by creating a tight sealing contact between flat faces, and can be classified by type (pusher, unbalanced, etc.) and arrangement (single, double, cartridge). Proper seal selection requires considering the liquid, pressure, temperature, liquid characteristics, and reliability/emission needs.
The document provides an overview of petroleum storage tank training, covering topics such as:
- Tank design types including fixed roof, internal floating roof, and floating roof tanks
- Selection of tank type based on product properties and volatility
- Tank structure including bottom/floor design, bottom and shell plates, and foundation types
- Stability calculations and anchor requirements for withstanding wind loads
- Tank inspection and safety procedures
The training aims to identify tank components, understand tank limitations, perform calculations, and operate tanks safely.
Ship refrigeration plants play a vital role in transporting perishable cargo by maintaining the appropriate temperatures. The main components of refrigeration plants include compressors, condensers, receivers, driers, expansion valves, evaporators, and control units. Refrigeration plants use the vapor compression cycle to remove heat from cargo holds or crew areas, circulating a refrigerant through the components to absorb, compress, condense, expand, and evaporate heat.
This document provides an overview of early sizing considerations for pressure safety valves (PSVs). It discusses important terminologies, types of PSVs, sizing basis, applicable standards, and the early sizing procedure. The procedure involves selecting possible orifice areas to meet capacity requirements. The objectives of early sizing are to remove holds in piping and instrumentation diagrams and allow early release of piping designs. The document also discusses inter-discipline interfaces, lessons learned, and quality management system documents related to PSV sizing.
PROCESS STORAGE TANK LAH & LAHH LEVEL CALCULATIONVijay Sarathy
The document contains parameters for a process storage tank including a diameter of 14 feet, height of 18 feet, normal liquid level of 6 feet, and pump inflow of 250 USGPM. It details calculations for the liquid alarm high-high level of 14.74 feet based on filling the tank from the overfill level to that point within 15 minutes, and liquid alarm high level of 8.23 feet calculated from filling within 45 minutes.
This document is a dissertation submitted by Kuan, Siew Yeng to the University of Southern Queensland in fulfillment of the requirements for a Bachelor of Engineering (Mechanical Engineering) degree. The dissertation focuses on designing a new floating roof tank. It provides background on floating roof tanks, relevant design codes and standards, and discusses design considerations and methods for the shell, roof, fittings and accessories. The goal is to develop basic rules and procedures for designing, constructing and operating floating roof tanks based on a case study.
This document summarizes the control design of an industrial grade steady state distillation column and associated production equipment at Vasudha Pharma Chem Limited in Visakhapatnam. It discusses the different types of industrial grade distillation equipment, design and analysis factors to consider, classifications of distillation processes as batch or continuous, components of a distillation column including the rectifying and stripping sections, and general design considerations for the column. The document provides a detailed study of an industrial distillation column used to separate a methanol-water mixture.
This document outlines the procedures and results from an experiment on gas absorption using an absorption column. The experiment examined the air pressure drop across the column as air flow rate was increased for different fixed water flow rates. Pressure drop was recorded and plotted against air flow rate. The experimental flooding points where compared to theoretical calculations, with errors ranging from 11.1% to 20%. The results showed that pressure drop increased with air flow rate as expected, identifying the flooding points where liquid could no longer flow down the column.
This document is a research project submitted for a degree in Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering on cooling towers. It includes 4 chapters that discuss mechanical components, thermal performance testing, and electrical components of cooling towers. The introduction provides background on cooling towers and how they work to remove heat from water through evaporation. It also discusses types of cooling towers, including natural draft and mechanical draft, and covers psychrometrics and heat transfer principles.
1) Mechanical draft cooling towers use fans to circulate air through the tower to maximize heat transfer between water and air. There are two main types - counter-flow and induced draft.
2) Counter-flow towers have water flowing down and air flowing up, while induced draft towers have water flowing in at the top and air drawn in at the bottom and exiting at the top.
3) The operational cost of cooling towers includes electricity costs from pumps and fans circulating water and air, as well as water costs which are influenced by makeup water usage from evaporation and blowdown. Minimizing these costs can improve efficiency.
This document is a research project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a degree in Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering. It contains an abstract, introduction, and 4 chapters that discuss cooling towers, their components, thermal performance testing, and electrical components. The introduction provides background on cooling towers and how they work to lower water temperature through evaporation and heat transfer to the atmosphere. It also discusses prior research on improving cooling tower performance. The abstract indicates the research examines different types of cooling towers, their application, efficiency, and working principles, and includes a simulation of flow fields around a cooling tower.
This document summarizes the types, working principles, and applications of cooling towers. It discusses natural and mechanical draft cooling towers, as well as dry, wet, and hybrid heat transfer methods. The key components and processes of power plants that utilize cooling towers are also overviewed. Different sizes, designs, and environmental impacts of cooling towers are addressed.
This document summarizes the key components and operation of an induced draft cooling tower. It discusses the purpose of cooling towers, which is to transfer process waste heat from water to the atmosphere. The key parts of a cooling tower are identified, including the fan, fill packaging, spray nozzles, and drift eliminator. It also explains that warm water enters the top of the cooling tower and is sprayed across the fill packaging in droplets to increase surface area and allow heat to be transferred to the air moving countercurrently through the tower.
This document summarizes a student project on designing an induced draft cooling tower. It includes an abstract, table of contents, introduction on cooling tower components and operation, descriptions of different cooling tower types and materials used, and conclusions on ceramic tile packaging and simulation studies. The project aims to design a circular cooling tower and analyze its performance under various loads using structural analysis software.
This document provides an overview of cooling tower components and design. It describes the basic components of cooling towers including frames, fill materials, cold water basins, drift eliminators, air inlets, louvers, nozzles, and fans. It also discusses different types of cooling towers, factors that affect performance like wet bulb temperature, and efficient system operation through water treatment and use of efficient fans. The equipment used in this project includes a fan, DC centrifugal pump, sump, and tank. The fan and pump are powered by a DC motor.
Cooling towers are used in power plants to cool the hot water from the condenser so it can be reused. There are two main types: natural draft towers, which rely on natural air flow, and mechanical draft towers, which use fans to force air movement. Mechanical draft towers are more commonly used and can be either forced draft, with fans at the base, or induced draft, with fans at the top. Both tower types rely on evaporating some of the water to cool the remaining water through heat transfer with the air flow. Factors like air temperature and flow rate affect the cooling efficiency.
This document summarizes a review of cooling tower performance and opportunities for energy savings through economizer operation. It discusses how cooling towers work and rejects heat to the atmosphere. It notes that cooling towers are a major energy user in buildings and manufacturing. The document then reviews the Merkel theory model for predicting cooling tower performance and its limitations, especially at low fan speeds and wet bulb temperatures. It proposes creating a new model to more accurately predict performance under these conditions to better assess energy savings opportunities like economizer operation.
Optimal design of a hyperboloidal cooling towerSourav Lahiri
1. The document discusses the optimal design of a hyperboloidal cooling tower, which is a type of evaporative cooling tower that uses the evaporation of water to lower the temperature of a water stream.
2. It describes the components and functioning of cooling towers, including different types based on how air is drawn through. Hyperboloidal cooling towers have become standard due to their structural strength and efficiency.
3. The document then discusses issues like scale deposits that can reduce efficiency and proposes solutions like regularly cleaning spray nozzles and using soot blowers to remove scale and increase run time. It emphasizes the wide application of cooling towers in industries.
IRJET- Fabrication and Performance Analysis of Refrigeration Type Desert ...IRJET Journal
This document describes the fabrication and performance analysis of a refrigeration type desert cooler. It discusses the various components of the cooler, including the fan, compressor, PVC pipes, pump, evaporative pads, copper coil, capillary tube, and condenser. The cooler works by using a refrigeration system to cool water in a reservoir, which is then pumped through evaporative cooling pads to further lower the temperature of air passing through the pads. This allows the desert cooler to provide cooler air than a conventional cooler and can be an alternative to air conditioners in dry climates.
Thermodynamic Analysis of Cooling Tower with Air to Air Heat Exchanger for Re...IJMREMJournal
In this paper a thermodynamic analysis of cooling tower with air-to-air heat exchanger is presented. During manual operation of conventional cooling tower, a good quantity of water is evaporated which requires equivalent amount of makeup water for their condensers. So, in this regard, the thermodynamic model of a cooling with an air to air heat exchanger is developed using engineering equation solver (EES) software and then simulated in different climatic conditions of two major cities of Pakistan namely Karachi and Jamshoro through the period of June & December 2017. The results show a significant variation in water vapor recovery with respect to atmospheric conditions mainly humidity and ambient air temperature. Results reveal that the when a cooling tower coupled with air to air heat exchanger maximum amount of water vapors are recovered at Karachi and ranges up to 67% and 62% in Jamshoro during the month of December.
Thermodynamic Analysis of Cooling Tower with Air to Air Heat Exchanger for Re...IJMREMJournal
In this paper a thermodynamic analysis of cooling tower with air-to-air heat exchanger is presented. During
manual operation of conventional cooling tower, a good quantity of water is evaporated which requires equivalent
amount of makeup water for their condensers. So, in this regard, the thermodynamic model of a cooling with an
air to air heat exchanger is developed using engineering equation solver (EES) software and then simulated in
different climatic conditions of two major cities of Pakistan namely Karachi and Jamshoro through the period of
June & December 2017. The results show a significant variation in water vapor recovery with respect to
atmospheric conditions mainly humidity and ambient air temperature. Results reveal that the when a cooling
tower coupled with air to air heat exchanger maximum amount of water vapors are recovered at Karachi and
ranges up to 67% and 62% in Jamshoro during the month of December.
Study the factors on which efficiency of cooling tower can be critically accl...IJERA Editor
Water cooling is widely used in many industrial processes to control heat removal from a hot material surface.
In order to control the temperature distributions, a deeper understanding more accurate estimation of spray heat
transfer rates is needed. In a new technique combining experiment and computational modeling developed for
water cooling. It is better to understand the heat transfer mechanisms from the combustion gases to the cooling
water and then from the cooling water to the environment. To meet this need a logic tree is developed to provide
guidance on how to balance and identify problems within cooling system and schedule appropriate maintenance.
Fluid dynamics, Thermodynamics and Heat transfer are involved in developing a cooling system model and the
operation is familiar to the general operating companies. There will be the comparison and parametric
investigation of the cooling system model in the logic tree and the results are summarized as tables and charts.
The objective is to identify the several ways of improving efficiency of cooling tower. In this study we are doing
the comparison ofsome calculations regarding the cooling tower.
This document is a seminar report on cooling towers submitted by Saquib Mansoor Khan. It introduces cooling towers as important parts of industrial plants that reject heat into the atmosphere. There are three main types of cooling towers: natural draught, forced draught, and induced draught. Natural draught towers operate using natural airflow but have high costs, while forced draught towers use fans but can have issues with recirculation. Induced draught towers bring cooler air into contact with warmer water and allow for larger fans but require more power. Key terms related to cooling towers like fill, drift, approach, and cooling range are also defined.
the final abstract of our major project for the award of the degree of bachel...Sourav Lahiri
Cooling towers are heat rejection devices that allow industrial processes to reuse water by cooling it through evaporation. There are several types of cooling towers based on their design and operating principles. The key types are wet cooling towers, which use direct evaporation to cool water below the ambient air temperature, and closed circuit cooling towers, which protect process water from exposure while still enabling evaporative cooling. Cooling towers have evolved from early designs like spray ponds and platform towers to modern configurations that optimize heat transfer, such as those using fill materials to increase surface area between air and water flows.
This document provides an overview of the Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) module of the ECBC Training Workshop. It discusses key concepts in HVAC including whole building design approach, non-refrigerative and refrigerative cooling techniques, HVAC system types, components and efficiency metrics, building commissioning, and ECBC requirements. The document is intended to educate professionals on best practices in HVAC system design and operation to improve energy efficiency in buildings.
A Review on Design and Development of Three in One Air Cooling SystemIRJET Journal
This document provides a review of a proposed three-in-one air cooling system that uses evaporative cooling, desiccant cooling, and a heat and mass exchanger (HMX) to cool air without increasing humidity. The system combines direct and indirect evaporative cooling for higher effectiveness and lower energy consumption compared to vapor compression air conditioning systems. It also uses a desiccant wheel to control humidity. The HMX allows indirect evaporative cooling of a primary air stream through a wet secondary air stream to lower the temperature without increasing moisture content. This innovative three-in-one system could replace vapor compression systems to reduce electrical energy usage and emissions from air conditioning.
Cooling towers are used to reject heat from cooling water back into the atmosphere. There are two main types - natural draft and mechanical draft. Mechanical draft towers use fans to force or suck air through the tower and are more widely used. Key components include fill materials to maximize contact between water and air, basins to collect cooled water, and fans to induce air flow. Cooling tower performance is evaluated based on parameters like temperature range, approach to wet bulb temperature, cooling capacity, and cycles of concentration. Factors that affect performance include heat load, water flow rate, inlet air temperature, and approach. Towers with a lower approach require a larger size and are more expensive.
The document discusses cooling towers, providing details on their types, components, materials, and performance evaluation. It describes the two main types - natural draft and mechanical draft towers. Mechanical draft towers are more widely used and can have counterflow, induced draft or crossflow designs. The key components are identified as the frame, fill, cold water basin, drift eliminators, air inlet, louvers, nozzles and fans. Materials commonly used include galvanized steel, stainless steel, fiberglass, concrete, plastics and wood. Performance is evaluated based on parameters like range, approach, effectiveness, capacity, evaporation loss, cycles of concentration and liquid to gas ratio. Factors affecting performance include capacity, range, heat
Introduction- e - waste – definition - sources of e-waste– hazardous substances in e-waste - effects of e-waste on environment and human health- need for e-waste management– e-waste handling rules - waste minimization techniques for managing e-waste – recycling of e-waste - disposal treatment methods of e- waste – mechanism of extraction of precious metal from leaching solution-global Scenario of E-waste – E-waste in India- case studies.
artificial intelligence and data science contents.pptxGauravCar
What is artificial intelligence? Artificial intelligence is the ability of a computer or computer-controlled robot to perform tasks that are commonly associated with the intellectual processes characteristic of humans, such as the ability to reason.
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Artificial intelligence (AI) | Definitio
Comparative analysis between traditional aquaponics and reconstructed aquapon...bijceesjournal
The aquaponic system of planting is a method that does not require soil usage. It is a method that only needs water, fish, lava rocks (a substitute for soil), and plants. Aquaponic systems are sustainable and environmentally friendly. Its use not only helps to plant in small spaces but also helps reduce artificial chemical use and minimizes excess water use, as aquaponics consumes 90% less water than soil-based gardening. The study applied a descriptive and experimental design to assess and compare conventional and reconstructed aquaponic methods for reproducing tomatoes. The researchers created an observation checklist to determine the significant factors of the study. The study aims to determine the significant difference between traditional aquaponics and reconstructed aquaponics systems propagating tomatoes in terms of height, weight, girth, and number of fruits. The reconstructed aquaponics system’s higher growth yield results in a much more nourished crop than the traditional aquaponics system. It is superior in its number of fruits, height, weight, and girth measurement. Moreover, the reconstructed aquaponics system is proven to eliminate all the hindrances present in the traditional aquaponics system, which are overcrowding of fish, algae growth, pest problems, contaminated water, and dead fish.
Redefining brain tumor segmentation: a cutting-edge convolutional neural netw...IJECEIAES
Medical image analysis has witnessed significant advancements with deep learning techniques. In the domain of brain tumor segmentation, the ability to
precisely delineate tumor boundaries from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
scans holds profound implications for diagnosis. This study presents an ensemble convolutional neural network (CNN) with transfer learning, integrating
the state-of-the-art Deeplabv3+ architecture with the ResNet18 backbone. The
model is rigorously trained and evaluated, exhibiting remarkable performance
metrics, including an impressive global accuracy of 99.286%, a high-class accuracy of 82.191%, a mean intersection over union (IoU) of 79.900%, a weighted
IoU of 98.620%, and a Boundary F1 (BF) score of 83.303%. Notably, a detailed comparative analysis with existing methods showcases the superiority of
our proposed model. These findings underscore the model’s competence in precise brain tumor localization, underscoring its potential to revolutionize medical
image analysis and enhance healthcare outcomes. This research paves the way
for future exploration and optimization of advanced CNN models in medical
imaging, emphasizing addressing false positives and resource efficiency.
Design and optimization of ion propulsion dronebjmsejournal
Electric propulsion technology is widely used in many kinds of vehicles in recent years, and aircrafts are no exception. Technically, UAVs are electrically propelled but tend to produce a significant amount of noise and vibrations. Ion propulsion technology for drones is a potential solution to this problem. Ion propulsion technology is proven to be feasible in the earth’s atmosphere. The study presented in this article shows the design of EHD thrusters and power supply for ion propulsion drones along with performance optimization of high-voltage power supply for endurance in earth’s atmosphere.
Rainfall intensity duration frequency curve statistical analysis and modeling...bijceesjournal
Using data from 41 years in Patna’ India’ the study’s goal is to analyze the trends of how often it rains on a weekly, seasonal, and annual basis (1981−2020). First, utilizing the intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) curve and the relationship by statistically analyzing rainfall’ the historical rainfall data set for Patna’ India’ during a 41 year period (1981−2020), was evaluated for its quality. Changes in the hydrologic cycle as a result of increased greenhouse gas emissions are expected to induce variations in the intensity, length, and frequency of precipitation events. One strategy to lessen vulnerability is to quantify probable changes and adapt to them. Techniques such as log-normal, normal, and Gumbel are used (EV-I). Distributions were created with durations of 1, 2, 3, 6, and 24 h and return times of 2, 5, 10, 25, and 100 years. There were also mathematical correlations discovered between rainfall and recurrence interval.
Findings: Based on findings, the Gumbel approach produced the highest intensity values, whereas the other approaches produced values that were close to each other. The data indicates that 461.9 mm of rain fell during the monsoon season’s 301st week. However, it was found that the 29th week had the greatest average rainfall, 92.6 mm. With 952.6 mm on average, the monsoon season saw the highest rainfall. Calculations revealed that the yearly rainfall averaged 1171.1 mm. Using Weibull’s method, the study was subsequently expanded to examine rainfall distribution at different recurrence intervals of 2, 5, 10, and 25 years. Rainfall and recurrence interval mathematical correlations were also developed. Further regression analysis revealed that short wave irrigation, wind direction, wind speed, pressure, relative humidity, and temperature all had a substantial influence on rainfall.
Originality and value: The results of the rainfall IDF curves can provide useful information to policymakers in making appropriate decisions in managing and minimizing floods in the study area.
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Batteries -Introduction – Types of Batteries – discharging and charging of battery - characteristics of battery –battery rating- various tests on battery- – Primary battery: silver button cell- Secondary battery :Ni-Cd battery-modern battery: lithium ion battery-maintenance of batteries-choices of batteries for electric vehicle applications.
Fuel Cells: Introduction- importance and classification of fuel cells - description, principle, components, applications of fuel cells: H2-O2 fuel cell, alkaline fuel cell, molten carbonate fuel cell and direct methanol fuel cells.
1. University of Kufa – College of Engineering
Air Conditioning Engineering Department / 4 th
Year
By M.Sc.: Hyder M. Abdul Hussein
Equipment Technology – Chapter Nine – Cooling Tower
Chapter Nine
Cooling Tower
9.1 Introduction
Most air-conditioning systems and industrial processes generate heat that must
be removed and dissipated. Water is commonly used as a heat transfer medium to
remove heat from refrigerant condensers or industrial process heat exchangers. In the
past, this was accomplished by drawing a continuous stream of water from a utility
water supply or a natural body of water, heating it as it passed through the process,
and then discharging the water directly to a sewer or returning it to the body of water.
9.2 Cooling towers
Overcome most of these problems and therefore are commonly used to
dissipate heat from water-cooled refrigeration, air-conditioning, and industrial
process systems. The water consumption rate of a cooling tower system is only about
5% of that of a once-through system, making it the least expensive system to operate
with purchased water supplies. Additionally, the amount of heated water discharged
(blowdown) is very small, so the ecological effect is greatly reduced. Lastly, cooling
towers can cool water to within 2 to 3 K of the ambient wet-bulb temperature, or
about 20 K lower than can air-cooled systems of reasonable size. This lower
temperature improves the efficiency of the overall system, thereby reducing energy
use significantly and increasing process output.
9.3 Principle of operation
A cooling tower cools water by a combination of heat and mass transfer. Water
to be cooled is distributed in the tower by spray nozzles, splash bars, or film-type fill,
which exposes a very large water surface area to atmospheric air. Atmospheric air is
circulated by (1) fans, (2) convective currents, (3) natural wind currents, or (4)
induction effect from sprays. A portion of the water absorbs heat to change from a
liquid to a vapor at constant pressure. This heat of vaporization at atmospheric
pressure is transferred from the water remaining in the liquid state into the airstream.
2. University of Kufa – College of Engineering
Air Conditioning Engineering Department / 4 th
Year
By M.Sc.: Hyder M. Abdul Hussein
Equipment Technology – Chapter Nine – Cooling Tower
9.4 Types of cooling tower
Two basic types of evaporative cooling devices are used.
1- The direct-contact or open cooling tower
(Figure 1), exposes water directly to the cooling atmosphere, thereby
transferring the source heat load directly to the air.
2- Indirect or closed-circuit cooling tower
involves indirect contact between heated fluid and atmosphere (Figure 2),
essentially combining a heat exchanger and cooling tower into one relatively
compact device.
Fig. 1 Direct-Contact or Open Evaporative Cooling Tower Fig. 2 Indirect-Contact or Closed-Circuit Evaporative
Cooling Tower
Direct-contact devices, the most rudimentary is a spray filled tower that
exposes water to the air without any heat transfer medium or fill. In this device, the
amount of water surface exposed to the air depends on the spray efficiency, and the
time of contact depends on the elevation and pressure of the water distribution
system.
Indirect-contact (closed-circuit) cooling towers contain two separate fluid
circuits: (1) an external circuit, in which water is exposed to the atmosphere as it
cascades over the tubes of a coil bundle, and (2) an internal circuit, in which the fluid
3. University of Kufa – College of Engineering
Air Conditioning Engineering Department / 4 th
Year
By M.Sc.: Hyder M. Abdul Hussein
Equipment Technology – Chapter Nine – Cooling Tower
to be cooled circulates inside the tubes of the coil bundle. In operation, heat flows
from the internal fluid circuit, through the tube walls of the coil, to the external water
circuit and then, by heat and mass transfer, to atmospheric air. As the internal fluid
circuit never contacts the atmosphere, this unit can be used to cool fluids other than
water and/or to prevent contamination of the primary cooling circuit with airborne
dirt and impurities. Some closed-circuit cooling tower designs include cooling tower
fill to augment heat exchange in the coil (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Indirect-contact cooling tower
To increase contact surfaces as well as time of exposure, a heat transfer
medium, or fill, is installed below the water distribution system, in the path of the air.
The two types of fill in use are splash-type and film-type.
Splash-type fill
Maximizes contact area and time by forcing the water to cascade
through successive elevations of splash bars arranged in staggered rows.
Film-type fill
Achieves the same effect by causing the water to flow in a thin layer
over closely spaced sheets, principally polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
that are arranged vertically.
4. University of Kufa – College of Engineering
Air Conditioning Engineering Department / 4 th
Year
By M.Sc.: Hyder M. Abdul Hussein
Equipment Technology – Chapter Nine – Cooling Tower
Figure 4. Splash-type fill
Figure 5. Film-type fill
Either type of fill can be used in counter flow and cross-flow towers. For
thermal performance levels typically encountered in air conditioning and
refrigeration, a tower with film-type fill is usually more compact. However, splash-
type fill is less sensitive to initial air and water distribution and, along with specially
configured, ore widely spaced film-type fills, is preferred for applications that may be
subjected to blockage by scale, silt, or biological fouling.
5. University of Kufa – College of Engineering
Air Conditioning Engineering Department / 4 th
Year
By M.Sc.: Hyder M. Abdul Hussein
Equipment Technology – Chapter Nine – Cooling Tower
9.5 Different parts of cooling tower
1- Eliminator: It is not allowed to pass water. Eliminator is placed the at top of
tower, from which only hot air can pass.
2- Spray Nozzles and Header: These parts are used to increase the rate of
evaporation by increasing surface area of water.
3- PVC Falling: It reduces the falling speed of hot water and it is similar to
beehive.
4- Mesh: When the fan is ON, it uses atmosphere air which contains some
unwanted dust particles. Mesh is used to stop these particles and do not allow
to enter dust in to cooling tower.
5- Float Valve: It is used to maintain level of water.
6- Bleed Valve: It is used to control the concentration of minerals and salt.
7- Body: Body or outer surface of cooling tower is often made up from FRP (fiber
reinforced plastic), which protects the internal parts of cooling tower.
Figure 6. Parts of Cooling Tower
9.6 Types of Direct-Contact Cooling Towers
Cooling towers fall into two main categories (see Figure 6):
1- Natural draft (Non-Mechanical-Draft Towers)
2- Mechanical draft.
6. University of Kufa – College of Engineering
Air Conditioning Engineering Department / 4 th
Year
By M.Sc.: Hyder M. Abdul Hussein
Equipment Technology – Chapter Nine – Cooling Tower
Mechanical draft towers are available in the following airflow arrangements:
3- Counter flows induced draft.
4- Counter flow forced draft.
5- Cross flow induced draft.
Figure 7. Types of Direct-Contact Cooling Towers
9.7 Natural draft towers or hyperbolic cooling tower
It makes use of the difference in temperature between the ambient air and the
hotter air inside the tower. It works as follows:
• Hot air moves upwards through the tower (because hot air rises).
• Fresh cool air is drawn into the tower through an air inlet at the bottom.
• Due to the layout of the tower, no fan is required and there is almost no circulation
of hot air that could affect the performance.
a b
Figure 8 Types of Natural draft towers.
a- vertical Spray Tower, b- horizontal Spray Tower
7. University of Kufa – College of Engineering
Air Conditioning Engineering Department / 4 th
Year
By M.Sc.: Hyder M. Abdul Hussein
Equipment Technology – Chapter Nine – Cooling Tower
Cross flow Counter flow
Figure 9 Types of flow tower fill.
a b
Figure 10 Types of cross flow tower fill.
a- Induced draft, single-flow cross flow tower fill
b- Induced draft double-flow cross flow tower fill
9.8 Mechanical draft cooling towers
Mechanical draft towers have large fans to force or draw air through circulated
water. The water falls downwards over fill surfaces, which help increase the
contact time between the water and the air - this helps maximize heat transfer
between the two.
8. University of Kufa – College of Engineering
Air Conditioning Engineering Department / 4 th
Year
By M.Sc.: Hyder M. Abdul Hussein
Equipment Technology – Chapter Nine – Cooling Tower
Cooling rates of mechanical draft towers depend upon various parameters such
as fan diameter and speed of operation, fills for system resistance etc.
Mechanical draft towers are available in a large range of capacities. Towers
can be either factory built or field erected – for example concrete towers are
only field erected.
Many towers are constructed so that they can be grouped together to achieve
the desired capacity. Thus, many cooling towers are assemblies of two or more
individual cooling towers or “cells.”.
A- Forced Draft Cooling Towers (Figure 11)
How it works: air is blown through the tower by a fan located in the air inlet
Advantages:
1- Suited for high air resistance due to centrifugal blower fans
2- Fans are relatively quiet
Disadvantages:
Recirculation due to high air-entry and low air-exit velocities, which can be solved by
locating towers in plant rooms combined with discharge ducts
Figure 11 Factory-Assembled Counter flow Forced-Draft Tower
9. University of Kufa – College of Engineering
Air Conditioning Engineering Department / 4 th
Year
By M.Sc.: Hyder M. Abdul Hussein
Equipment Technology – Chapter Nine – Cooling Tower
B- Induced Draft Cooling Towers
Two types of induced draft cooling towers: cross flow and counter flow
Advantage: Less recirculation than forced draft towers because the speed of
exit air is 3-4 times higher than entering air.
Disadvantage: Fans and the motor drive mechanism require weather-proofing
against moisture and corrosion because they are in the path of humid exit air.
1- Induced draft counter flow cooling tower (Figure 12)
Hot water enters at the top
Air enters at bottom and exits at top
Uses forced and induced draft fans
Figure 12 Induced draft counter flow cooling tower
2- Induced draft cross flow cooling tower (Figure 13)
Water enters top and passes over fill
Air enters on one side or opposite sides
Induced draft fan draws air across fill
Figure 13 Induced draft cross Flow cooling tower
10. University of Kufa – College of Engineering
Air Conditioning Engineering Department / 4 th
Year
By M.Sc.: Hyder M. Abdul Hussein
Equipment Technology – Chapter Nine – Cooling Tower
C- Indirect-contact cooling tower
(also known as closed-circuit cooling tower) involves indirect contact between
the fluid being cooled and the atmosphere, essentially combining a heat exchanger
and cooling tower into one relatively compact device. The indirect-contact cooling
towers, according to their fan configurations, can also be classified as induced draft
counter flow, induced draft cross flow, forced draft counter flow and forced draft
cross flow cooling towers. There are two separate fluid circuits in an indirect contact
cooling tower. An external circuit allows water exposed to the atmosphere, while
internal circuit consists of the tubes of coil bundle carrying fluid to be cooled. Heat
flows from the internal fluid circuit, through the tube walls of the coil to external
water circuit. Heat is then transferred to the atmospheric air. Figure 14 shows the
typical configuration of closed-circuit cooling tower with no fill material.
Figure 14 Typical configuration of closed-circuit cooling tower with no fill material