Heart failure is a condition where the heart is unable to pump enough blood to meet the body's needs. It can result from any structural or functional issues impairing the ventricle's ability to eject or receive blood. Treatment involves controlling risk factors, lifestyle changes, and medications like diuretics, ACE inhibitors, beta blockers, and aldosterone antagonists. Complications include fluid retention, arrhythmias, hepatic and renal dysfunction. Refractory cases may require devices, transplantation, or palliative care.
The recent definition, concept and terminologies of septic shock, surviving sepsis campaign, management techniques, SOFA score. Also includes antibiotics and supportive modalities.
Dipeptidyl peptidase inhibitors(DPP-IV): A deep insightRxVichuZ
This presentation deals with DPP-IV inhibitors, that are implicated for use in diabetes mellitus. Generalized pharmacology, including a precise insight into individual drugs have been elucidated.
Cardio-Renal Protection Through Renin–Angiotensin–Aldosterone System Inhibitionmagdy elmasry
Physiological and detrimental roles of RAAS molecules in cardiac, vascular tissues and kidneys.‘cardiovascular continuum’ Barriers In Optimizing RAAS Inhibition.The effects of angiotensin II inhibition and improvement in bradykinin availability
New treatment for Diabetes Mellitus and Drugs to treat HypoglycemiaFarazaJaved
This ppt covers recently FDA approved treatment of DM and other drugs that are in clinical pipelines or still under consideration. 2nd portion of ppt covers protocol used to treat hypoglycemia in different situations.
Diabetes Mellitus type 1 major comorbidity now days.
Insulin injection being the major treatment Diabetes Mellitus.
Some other drugs used to treat the Diabetes Mellitus are Tablet Metformin 500 mg and other hypoglycemic drugs.
Diabetes Mellitus and Hypertension how they are interlinked.
Drugs for treatment of Diabetes MellitusNaser Tadvi
These slides contain the brief description of Insulin and the other oral drugs indicated in the treatment of Diabetes Mellitus. Their mechanism of action, effects, uses, Adverse effects etc.
The recent definition, concept and terminologies of septic shock, surviving sepsis campaign, management techniques, SOFA score. Also includes antibiotics and supportive modalities.
Dipeptidyl peptidase inhibitors(DPP-IV): A deep insightRxVichuZ
This presentation deals with DPP-IV inhibitors, that are implicated for use in diabetes mellitus. Generalized pharmacology, including a precise insight into individual drugs have been elucidated.
Cardio-Renal Protection Through Renin–Angiotensin–Aldosterone System Inhibitionmagdy elmasry
Physiological and detrimental roles of RAAS molecules in cardiac, vascular tissues and kidneys.‘cardiovascular continuum’ Barriers In Optimizing RAAS Inhibition.The effects of angiotensin II inhibition and improvement in bradykinin availability
New treatment for Diabetes Mellitus and Drugs to treat HypoglycemiaFarazaJaved
This ppt covers recently FDA approved treatment of DM and other drugs that are in clinical pipelines or still under consideration. 2nd portion of ppt covers protocol used to treat hypoglycemia in different situations.
Diabetes Mellitus type 1 major comorbidity now days.
Insulin injection being the major treatment Diabetes Mellitus.
Some other drugs used to treat the Diabetes Mellitus are Tablet Metformin 500 mg and other hypoglycemic drugs.
Diabetes Mellitus and Hypertension how they are interlinked.
Drugs for treatment of Diabetes MellitusNaser Tadvi
These slides contain the brief description of Insulin and the other oral drugs indicated in the treatment of Diabetes Mellitus. Their mechanism of action, effects, uses, Adverse effects etc.
Definition of heart failure - causes and types of heart failure - pathophysiology and risky factors for heart failure - Diagnosis clinical manifestations and investigations and classification of heart failure- treatment of chronic heart failure
Also Acute heart failure causes - clinical picture and treatment
Nowadays Cardiac Failure is the most common disease faced by many people so awareness on this one is very important.In my presentation i included types of cardiac failure, classification of cardiac failure,cardiac drugs,mechanism of action of cardiac drugs,drug therapy.
It includes emergency situations related to the cardiovascular aspect of humans. it focuses on the critical care aspect to manage certain emergencies. Nursing care is also included thus, fosters a better aspect of nursing individuals to manage a cardiovascular emergency.
New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
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Basavarajeeyam is an important text for ayurvedic physician belonging to andhra pradehs. It is a popular compendium in various parts of our country as well as in andhra pradesh. The content of the text was presented in sanskrit and telugu language (Bilingual). One of the most famous book in ayurvedic pharmaceutics and therapeutics. This book contains 25 chapters called as prakaranas. Many rasaoushadis were explained, pioneer of dhatu druti, nadi pareeksha, mutra pareeksha etc. Belongs to the period of 15-16 century. New diseases like upadamsha, phiranga rogas are explained.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
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2. Heart failure - Definition
Impaired cardiac pumping such that heart
is unable to pump adequate amount of
blood to meet metabolic needs
Not a disease but a “syndrome”
2
3. Heart Failure
Results from any structural or functional
abnormality that impairs the ability of the
ventricle to eject blood (Systolic Heart
Failure) or to fill with blood (Diastolic
Heart Failure).
3
4. Heart Failure (HF) - Key Concepts
CO = SV x HR-becomes insufficient to
meet metabolic needs of body
SV- determined by preload, afterload
and myocardial contractility
*Classifications HF
Systolic failure- decreased contractility
Diastolic failure- decreased filling
Mixed
4
9. The Vicious Cycle of Congestive Heart
Failure
Decreased Blood Pressure and
Decreased Renal perfusion
Stimulates the Release
of renin, Which allows
conversion of
Angiotensin
to Angiotensin II.
Angiotensin II stimulates
Aldosterone secretion which
causes retention of
Na+ and Water,
increasing filling pressure
LV Dysfunction causes
Decreased cardiac output
9
10. HF Pathophysiology - summary
A. Cardiac compensatory mechanisms
Tachycardia
Ventricular dilation - Starling’s law
Myocardial hypertrophy
Hypoxia leads to decreased contractility
10
11. HF pathophysiology-Summary
B. Homeostatic Compensatory mechanisms
Sympathetic Nervous System -(Rx –b-blockers)
Vascular system- norepinephrine-
vasoconstriction (increases after load)
Kidneys
A. Decreased CO and B/P- Increase renin
angiotensin release ( Rx -ACE i)
B. Aldosterone release > Na and H2O retention
(Rx ARB)
11
12. HF pathophysiology-Summary
Liver - stores venous volume (ascites, +HJR,
Hepatomegaly- can store 10 L. check liver
enzymes.
Counter-regulatory-mechanisms
• Increased Na reabsorption >release of ADH
(Rx -diuretics)
• *Release of atrial natriuretic factor (ANP) >
Na and H20 excretion, (prevents severe
cardiac decompensation)
12
13. Types of Heart Failure
Low-Output Heart Failure
Systolic Heart Failure:
• Decreased cardiac output
• Decreased Left ventricular ejection fraction
Diastolic Heart Failure:
• Elevated Left and Right ventricular end-diastolic
pressures
• May have normal LVEF
High-Output Heart Failure
• Seen with peripheral shunting, low-systemic vascular
resistance, hyperthryoidism, beri-beri, carcinoid,
anemia
• Often have normal cardiac output
Right-Ventricular Failure
• Seen with pulmonary hypertension, large RV
infarctions. 13
16. Staging of Heart Failure Disease
ACC/AHA Guidelines
Stage A – High risk of HF, without structural
heart disease or symptoms
Stage B – Heart disease with asymptomatic
left ventricular dysfunction
Stage C – Prior or current symptoms of HF
associted with underlying heart disease
Stage D – Advanced heart disease and
severely symptomatic or refractory HF
16
17. Clinical staging of Heart Failure symptoms
New York Heart Association (NYHA)
Class I – symptoms of HF only at levels that
would limit normal individuals.
Class II – symptoms of HF with ordinary
exertion
Class III – symptoms of HF on less than
ordinary exertion
Class IV – symptoms of HF at rest
17
20. Clinical Presentation of Heart Failure
Due to excess fluid accumulation:
Dyspnea (most sensitive symptom)
Edema
Hepatic congestion
Ascites
Orthopnea, Paroxysmal Nocturnal Dyspnea (PND)
Due to reduction in cardiac ouput:
Fatigue (especially with exertion
Weakness
20
21. Physical Examination in Heart Failure
S3 gallop - Low sensitivity, but highly specific
Cool, pale, cyanotic extremities
Have sinus tachycardia, diaphoresis and peripheral
vasoconstriction
Crackles or decreased breath sounds at bases
(effusions) on lung exam
Elevated jugular venous pressure
Lower extremity edema
Ascites,Hepatomegaly,Splenomegaly
Displaced Apex beat - Apical impulse that is laterally
displaced past the midclavicular line is usually indicative
of left ventricular enlargement.
21
25. Lab Analysis in Heart Failure
CBC
• Since anemia can exacerbate heart failure
Serum electrolytes and creatinine
• before starting high dose diuretics
Fasting Blood glucose
• To evaluate for possible diabetes mellitus
Thyroid function tests
• Since thyrotoxicosis can result in A. Fib,
and hypothyroidism can results in HF.
Iron studies
• To screen for hereditary hemochromatosis as
cause of heart failure.
ANA
• To evaluate for possible lupus
Viral studies
• If viral mycocarditis suspected 25
26. Laboratory Analysis (cont.)
BNP
• With chronic heart failure, atrial
mycotes secrete increase amounts of
atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) and
brain natriuretic pepetide (BNP) in
response to high atrial and ventricular
filling pressures
• Usually is > 400 pg/mL in patients with
dyspnea due to heart failure.
26
27. Chest X-ray in Heart Failure
Cardiomegaly
Cephalization of the pulmonary vessels
Kerley B-lines
Pleural effusions
27
33. Further Cardiac Testing in Heart Failure
Exercise Testing
Should be part of initial evaluation of all patients with
CHF.
Coronary arteriography
Should be performed in patients presenting with
heart failure who have angina or significant ischemia
Reasonable in patients who have chest pain that
may or may not be cardiac in origin, in whom cardiac
anatomy is not known, and in patients with known or
suspected coronary artery disease who do not have
angina.
Measure cardiac output, degree of left ventricular
dysfunction, and left ventricular end-diastolic
pressure.
33
34. Further testing in Heart Failure
Endomyocardial biopsy
• Not frequently used
• Really only useful in cases such as
viral-induced cardiomyopathy
• In endomyocardial fibrosis
34
35. Chronic Treatment of Systolic HF
Correction of systemic factors
• Thyroid dysfunction
• Infections
• Uncontrolled diabetes
• Hypertension
Lifestyle modification
• Lower salt intake
• Alcohol cessation
• Medication compliance
Maximize medications
• Discontinue drugs that may contribute to heart
failure (NSAIDS, antiarrhythmics, calcium
channel blockers) 35
36. Order of Therapy
1. Loop diuretics
2. ACE inhibitor (or ARB if not tolerated)
3. Beta blockers
4. Digoxin
5. Hydralazine, Nitrate
6. Potassium sparing diuretcs
36
37. Diuretics
Loop diuretics
• Furosemide, buteminide
• For Fluid control, and to help relieve symptoms
Potassium-sparing diuretics
• Spironolactone, eplerenone
• Help enhance diuresis
• Maintain potassium
• Shown to improve survival in CHF
37
38. ACE Inhibitor
Improve survival in patients with all
severities of heart failure.
Begin therapy low and titrate up as
possible:
• Enalapril – 2.5 mg po BID
• Captopril – 6.25 mg po TID
• Lisinopril – 5 mg po QDaily
If cannot tolerate, may try ARB
38
39. Beta Blocker therapy
Certain Beta blockers (carvedilol, metoprolol,
bisoprolol) can improve overall and event free
survival in NYHA class II to III HF, probably in class
IV.
Contraindicated:
• Heart rate <60 bpm
• Symptomatic bradycardia
• Signs of peripheral hypoperfusion
• COPD, asthma
• PR interval > 0.24 sec, 2nd or 3rd degree block
39
40. Hydralazine plus Nitrates
Dosing:
Hydralazine
• Started at 25 mg po TID, titrated up to 100 mg po TID
Isosorbide dinitrate
• Started at 40 mg po TID/QID
Decreased mortality, lower rates of
hospitalization, and improvement in
quality of life.
40
41. Digoxin
Given to patients with HF to control
symptoms such as fatigue, dyspnea,
exercise intolerance
Shown to significantly reduce
hospitalization for heart failure, but no
benefit in terms of overall mortality.
41
42. Other important medication in Heart Failure
Statin therapy is recommended in CHF for
the secondary prevention of
cardiovascular disease.
Some studies have shown a possible
benefit specifically in HF with statin
therapy
• Improved LVEF
• Reversal of ventricular remodeling
• Reduction in inflammatory markers (CRP, IL-6,
TNF-alphaII)
42
43. Meds to AVOID in heart failure
NSAIDS -Can cause worsening of preexisting
HF
Thiazolidinediones
• Include rosiglitazone (Avandia), and
pioglitazone (Actos)
• Cause fluid retention that can
exacerbate HF
Metformin - people with HF who take it are at
increased risk of potentially lethal lactic acidosis
43
44. Heart Failure Complications
Pleural effusion
Atrial fibrillation (most common
dysrhythmia)
Loss of atrial contraction (kick) -reduce CO
by 10% to 20%
Promotes thrombus/embolus formation
increase risk for stroke
Treatment may include cardioversion,
antidysrhythmics, and/or anticoagulants
44
45. Heart Failure Complications
**High risk of fatal dysrhythmias (e.g., sudden
cardiac death, ventricular tachycardia) with
HF and an EF <35%
HF lead to severe hepatomegaly, especially
with RV failure
• Fibrosis and cirrhosis - develop over time
Renal insufficiency or failure
45
46. Rx for arrhythmias -Implantable
Cardioverter-Defibrillators (ICD)
Sustained ventricular
tachycardia is associated with
sudden cardiac death in HF.
About one-third of mortality in
HF is due to sudden cardiac
death.
Patients with ischemic or
nonischemic cardiomyopathy,
NYHA class II to III HF, and
LVEF ≤ 35% have a
significant survival benefit
from an implantable
cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD)
for the primary prevention of
SCD.
46
47. Management of Refractory Heart Failure
Inotropic drugs:
Dobutamine, dopamine, milrinone, nitroprusside,
nitroglycerin
Mechanical circulatory support:
Intraaortic balloon pump
Left ventricular assist device (LVAD)
Cardiac Transplantation
• A history of multiple hospitalizations for HF
• Escalation in the intensity of medical therapy
• A reproducable peak oxygen consumption with
maximal exercise (VO2max) of < 14 mL/kg per min.
(normal is 20 mL/kg per min. or more) is relative
indication, while a VO2max < 10 mL/kg per min is a
stronger indication.
47
48. Acute Decompensated Heart Failure
(ADHF)
Occurs in known stable HF patients
Cardiogenic pulmonary edema is a
common and sometimes fatal cause of
acute respiratory distress.
Characterized by the transudation of
excess fluid into the lungs secondary to
an increase in left atrial and subsequently
pulmonary venous and pulmonary
capillary pressures.
48
49. ADHF Causes
Infections
• Acute MI
• Rupture of chordae tendinae/acute
mitral valve insufficiency
• Volume Overload
• Transfusions, IV fluids
• Non-compliance with diuretics, diet
(high salt intake)
• Worsening valvular defect
• Aortic stenosis 49
50. ADHF
Symptoms
Severe dyspnea
Cough
Clinical Findings
Tachypnea
Tachycardia
Hypertension/Hypotension
Crackles on lung exam
Increased JVD
S3, S4 or new murmur 50
51. ADHF/Pulmonary Edema(advanced LVF)
When PA WEDGE pressure is approx
30mmHg
Signs and symptoms
• wheezing
• Pallor, cyanosis
• Increased HR and BP
• S3
• Rales,copious pink, frothy sputum
51
52. Labs/Studies in ADHF
U/E/C, CBC
EKG
Chest X-ray
May consider cardiac enzymes
2D-Echo
52
53. ADHF Treatment
Strict I’s and O’s, daily weights
Oxygen, mechanical ventilation if
needed
Loop diuretics (furosemide)
Morphine
Vasodilator therapy (nitroglycerin)
Nesiritide (BNP) – can help in acute
setting, for short term therapy
53
54. Heart Failure (ADHF) Pneumonic
(emergency mgmt)
U Upright Position
N Nitrates
L Lasix
O Oxygen
A ACE, ARBs, Amiodorone
D Digoxin, Dobutamine
M Morphine Sulfate
E Extremities Down 54
55. Right heart failure / Cor Pulmonale
•Results from diseased right
ventricle
•Blood backs up into right atrium
and venous circulation
•Causes
LVF
Cor pulmonale
RV infarction
55
56. Cor Pulmonale
Right Sided Heart Disease, secondarily
caused by abnormalities of lung
parenchyme, airways, thorax, or
respiratory control mechanisms.
No evidence of other heart conditions,
May be Acute or Chronic
56
60. Pathophysiology
Pulmonary disease can produce
physiologic changes that in time affect the
heart and cause the right ventricle to
enlarge and eventually fail.
Any condition that deprives the lungs of
oxygen can cause hypoxemia and
hypercapnia resulting in ventilatory
insufficiency.
60
61. Pathophysiology..
Hypoxemia and hypercapnia cause
pulmonary arterial vasoconstriction and
possibly reduction of the pulmonary
vascular bed e.g in COPD or pulmonary
Embolism.
Right ventricular hypertrophy may result,
followed by right ventricular failure.
61
62. Pathophysiology..
In summary, cor pulmonale results from
pulmonary hypertension, which causes the
right side of the heart to enlarge because of
the increased work required to pump blood
against high resistance through the
pulmonary vascular system.
.
62
63. Natural History
Several months to years to develop
All ages from child to old people
Repeated infections aggravate RV strain
into RV failure
Initially responds well to therapy but
progressively becomes refractory
63
An ejection fraction (EF) is one of the measurements used by physicians to assess how well a patient’s heart is functioning. “Ejection” refers to the amount of blood that is pumped out of the heart’s main pumping chamber during each heartbeat. “Fraction” refers to the fact that, even in a healthy heart, some blood always remains within this chamber after each heartbeat. Therefore an ejection fraction is a percentage of the blood within the chamber that is pumped out with every heartbeat. An EF of 55 to 75 percent is considered normal. A higher than normal ejection fraction could indicate the presence of certain heart conditions, such as hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. A low ejection fraction could be a sign that the heart is weakened.
The Frank-Starling Law states that the stroke volume of the left ventricle will increase as the left ventricular volume increases due to the myocyte stretch causing a more forceful systolic contraction
BNP belongs to a family of protein hormones called natriuretic peptides, which includes ANP, BNP, CNP, and DNP. Natriuretic peptides are part of the body’s natural defense mechanisms designed to protect the heart from stress and play an important role in regulating circulation. They promote urine excretion, relax blood vessels, lower blood pressure, and reduce the heart’s workload. Most scientific study has focused on ANP and BNP.
Measurement of BNP helps doctors diagnose and treat congestive heart failure. In this condition, the heart is unable to pump blood efficiently, and the heart chambers swell with blood. As the heart cells stretch, they produce extra BNP, which pours into the bloodstream. By measuring blood levels of BNP, doctors can spot signs of congestive heart failure in its early stages, when it may be hard to distinguish from other disorders. A normal BNP level is about 98% accurate in ruling out heart failure. And, in general, the higher the level, the worse the heart failure. Falling BNP levels indicate that treatment is working.
ACC-American college of cardiology ,AHA-American heart association