Clusters and Wharehouse Scale Computers
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by WilliamStallings for BSc CS, BCA, MSc CS, MCA, ME students.Make use of it.
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Electromagnetic Signal
Function of time
Can also be expressed as a function of frequency
Signal consists of components of different frequencies
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Analog signal - signal intensity varies in a smooth fashion over time
No breaks or discontinuities in the signal
Digital signal - signal intensity maintains a constant level for some period of time and then changes to another constant level
Periodic signal - analog or digital signal pattern that repeats over time
s(t +T ) = s(t ) -ยฅ< t < +ยฅ
where T is the period of the signal
Time-Domain Concepts
Aperiodic signal - analog or digital signal pattern that doesn't repeat over time
Peak amplitude (A) - maximum value or strength of the signal over time; typically measured in volts
Frequency (f )
Rate, in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz) at which the signal repeats
Time-Domain Concepts
Period (T ) - amount of time it takes for one repetition of the signal
T = 1/f
Phase (๏ฆ) - measure of the relative position in time within a single period of a signal
Wavelength (๏ฌ) - distance occupied by a single cycle of the signal
Or, the distance between two points of corresponding phase of two consecutive cycles
Sine Wave Parameters
General sine wave
s(t ) = A sin(2๏ฐft + ๏ฆ)
Figure 2.3 shows the effect of varying each of the three parameters
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(c) Increased frequency; f = 2, thus T = ยฝ
(d) Phase shift; ๏ฆ = ๏ฐ/4 radians (45 degrees)
note: 2๏ฐ radians = 360ยฐ = 1 period
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Time vs. Distance
When the horizontal axis is time, as in Figure 2.3, graphs display the value of a signal at a given point in space as a function of time
With the horizontal axis in space, graphs display the value of a signal at a given point in time as a function of distance
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Fundamental frequency - when all frequency components of a signal are integer multiples of one frequency, itโs referred to as the fundamental frequency
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Absolute bandwidth - width of the spectrum of a signal
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Wireless LAN technologies can be categorized based on their transmission technique. Infrared LANs use infrared light which does not penetrate walls but avoids interference. Spread spectrum LANs operate in unlicensed bands and can be configured in a hub or ad hoc topology. Narrowband microwave LANs can be licensed or unlicensed, with licensed providing guaranteed interference-free communication but requiring fees.
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Multiprocessor are classified as multiple instruction stream, multiple data stream (MIMD) system.
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Classful addressing divides IP addresses into classes A, B, C, D, and E, limiting flexibility and wasting addresses. Classless addressing, also known as CIDR, provides more flexibility by allowing companies to request the specific number of addresses needed rather than being restricted to block sizes. CIDR network addresses include a subnet mask to specify the network and host portions of the address, allowing discontiguous networks to be created from a classful address range.
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The document discusses the organization and operation of dynamic random access memory (DRAM). DRAM uses capacitors to store bits of data in memory cells that must be periodically refreshed. It describes how DRAM cells are arranged in a grid structure with rows and columns, and how row and column addresses are used to access individual cells. The document also explains techniques like fast page mode that allow for faster access to blocks of data within the same row without needing to reselect the row address.
Hybrid wireless protocols
The document describes protocols for hybrid wireless networks that can operate as both infrastructure-based and ad-hoc networks. It proposes one-hop and two-hop direct transmission protocols that allow mobile nodes to communicate directly or through a relay node without involving the base station. Handoff procedures enable seamless switching between direct transmission and base station-oriented modes. The hybrid approach combines the advantages of ad-hoc and infrastructure-based networks for improved efficiency, reliability and flexibility during communication.
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Hardware multithreading allows multiple threads to share the functional units of a single processor by switching between threads when one thread is stalled. There are three main types of hardware multithreading: coarse-grained multithreading switches threads on long latency events like L2 cache misses; fine-grained multithreading switches threads every clock cycle in a round-robin fashion for high throughput but poor single-thread performance; simultaneous multithreading combines fine-grained multithreading with superscalar processing to further improve throughput by hiding memory latency but increases conflicts for shared resources.
Pstn (Public Switched Telephone Networks)
PSTN is the global collection of interconnects originally designed to support circuit switched voice communication.
The PSTN provides traditional Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS), also known as โlandline phoneโ service , to residences & many other establishments.
Parts of the PSTN are also utilized for DSL, voIP & other Internet based network technologies.
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What is Computer Network? What is Networking? Application of Networks. Network criteria. Types of Network. LAN, MAN, WAN, Workstation, Workgroup, Domain.
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This document provides an overview of sensor networks and wireless sensor network architectures. It begins with an introduction to wireless sensor networks and their components. It then discusses the topics, challenges, and enabling technologies for WSNs. The document outlines the architecture of a sensor node and its goals. It provides examples of WSN applications and discusses sensor network deployment considerations. Finally, it addresses the design challenges, operational challenges, and required mechanisms for WSNs to meet their requirements.
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This document discusses different types of computer network topologies and categories. It describes mesh, star, bus, and ring topologies, providing their key characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages. It also defines local area networks (LANs), wide area networks (WANs), and metropolitan area networks (MANs), and discusses how multiple networks can be interconnected through an internet. The document serves to provide an overview of fundamental network topology and category concepts.
SENSOR NETWORK PLATFORMS AND TOOLS
This document discusses different types of sensor node hardware: augmented general-purpose computers, dedicated embedded sensor nodes, and system-on-chip devices. It notes that Berkley motes have gained popularity due to their small size, open source software, and commercial availability. The document also outlines programming challenges for sensor networks and different approaches like event-driven execution, node-level software platforms, and state-centric programming.
Interfacing methods of microcontroller
The document discusses microcontroller interfacing. It defines interfacing as the transfer of data between microcontrollers and peripherals using buses. Interfacing is needed to connect a microcontroller's computation capabilities to external signals or devices to enable man-machine interaction. Various interfacing methods are described, including wiring techniques like wires, buses, and pins. Examples of interfacing a microcontroller to memory and I/O devices are provided. Common microcontroller interfaces like digital input/output, analog, serial interfaces are also summarized along with their applications and advantages/disadvantages.
Network layer logical addressing
Network Layer addresses data at the logical and physical levels. Logical addresses are generated by CPUs and allow virtual addressing, while physical addresses map to specific memory locations. The network layer provides routing across multiple physical links from one device to another. IP addresses uniquely identify devices on the Internet, though they can change over time as connections change. IPv6 was developed to address the impending exhaustion of IPv4 addresses by expanding the address space to 128 bits.
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This document discusses different types of computer network switching, including circuit switching, packet switching, and virtual circuit switching. Circuit switching establishes a dedicated connection between nodes for the duration of a call. Packet switching divides messages into packets that are routed independently through a network on a first-come, first-served basis without dedicated connections. Virtual circuit switching combines aspects of circuit switching and packet switching by establishing paths for packets through a three-phase process of setup, data transfer using local addressing, and teardown.
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Slide final
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This document provides an introduction and definition of distributed systems. It discusses that a distributed system consists of multiple autonomous computers that appear as a single system to users. It describes characteristics like transparency, openness, and scalability. Hardware concepts like shared memory multiprocessors and message passing multicomputers are covered. Software concepts like distributed operating systems and network operating systems are introduced. Transparency, organization, goals and examples of distributed systems are summarized.
Dos unit1
Introduction
Distributed Operating system
Evaluation of distributed computing system
Models
Gaining Popularity
Operating system
Issues in designing DOS
DCE
DCE component
Computer networks
Network types
Lan Technologies
tan technologies
wan technologies
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Computer Networking (Growth of number & power of computers is driving need for interconnection)
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Clusters and Wharehouse Scale Computers
- 1. CLUSTERS & WAREHOUSE- SCALE COMPUTERS (WSC)
- 2. MESSAGE PASSING MULTIPROCESSOR Message Passing Communicating between multiple processors by explicitly sending and receiving information. Send Message Routine A routine used by a processor in machines with private memories to pass a message to another processor. Receive Message Routine A routine used by a processor in machines with private memories to accept a message from another processor.
- 3. CLUSTERS Collections of computers connected via I/O over standard network switches to form a message-passing multiprocessor. each node of a cluster runs a distinct copy of the operating system Since a cluster consists of independent computers connected through a local area network, it is much easier to replace a computer without bringing down the system in a cluster than in an shared memory multiprocessor It is also easy for clusters to scale down gracefully when a server fails, thereby improving dependability
- 4. CLUSTERS Since the cluster soft ware is a layer that runs on top of the local operating systems running on each computer, it is much easier to disconnect and replace a broken computer. Given that clusters are constructed from whole computers and independent, scalable networks, this isolation also makes it easier to expand the system without bringing down the application that runs on top of the cluster The search engines that hundreds of millions of us use every day depend upon this technology lower cost, higher availability, and rapid, incremental expandability make clusters attractive to service Internet providers
- 5. WAREHOUSE-SCALE COMPUTERS (WSC) Seymour Roger Cray WSCs have three major distinctions with Servers 1. Ample, easy parallelism 2. Operational Costs Count 3. Scale and the Opportunities/Problems Associated with Scale
- 6. INTRODUCTION TO MULTIPROCESSOR NETWORK TOPOLOGIES RING MESH TREE