The document discusses several theories of antibody formation:
1. Side chain theory proposed that cell surface receptors react with complementary antigens. This was later abandoned.
2. Direct template theory proposed antigens directly enter cells and act as templates for antibody production.
3. Indirect template theory proposed antigens generate copies that incorporate into the cell genome to direct antibody formation.
4. Natural selection theory proposed that natural antibodies pre-exist and antigens select for matching antibodies. Clonal selection theory, introduced by Burnet, widely explains the immune response and is based on lymphocytes bearing unique receptors that activate upon antigen binding.
CLONAL SELECTION THEORY IS AN SCIENTIFIC THEORY IN IMMUNOLOGY THAT EXPALINS THE FUNCTION OF CELLS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM IN RESPONSE TO SPECIFIC ANTIGEN INVADING THE BODY.
CLONAL SELECTION THEORY IS AN SCIENTIFIC THEORY IN IMMUNOLOGY THAT EXPALINS THE FUNCTION OF CELLS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM IN RESPONSE TO SPECIFIC ANTIGEN INVADING THE BODY.
Antigen processing and presentation by Dr K.Geetha, Associate Professor, Department of Biotechnology, Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology, Near Virudhunagar, Madurai Dist.
Breeding Cross-pollinated Crops and Clonally Propagated Onesishtiaq shariq
A comprehensive and detailed information package about breeding cross-pollinated crops and clones.
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Antigen processing and presentation by Dr K.Geetha, Associate Professor, Department of Biotechnology, Kamaraj College of Engineering & Technology, Near Virudhunagar, Madurai Dist.
Breeding Cross-pollinated Crops and Clonally Propagated Onesishtiaq shariq
A comprehensive and detailed information package about breeding cross-pollinated crops and clones.
Described in a beautiful manner using smart art and bullets.
Please don't feel hesitation, do leave comments, allowing me to improve my self and data, if any mistake is there. Thank you!
Adaptive/Acquired Immunity
Antigens – Anything that cases a biological immune response by this system of cells
Specificity – Some antibodies are quite specific to an antigen others are general to a “type” or “form”
Memory – b-memory cells are formed and remain to combat future exposures quickly (Active vs Passive immunity
Antibodies – the proteins formed by b-cells that combat antigens whether chemical or biological
Lymphocytes – cells involved in this response
immunity, types,Innate immunity and Adaptive Immunity, primary and secondary immune response, structure and functions of antibodies, immunoglobulins, hypergammaglobulinemia, multiple myeloma, bence jones protein, electrophoretic pattern of multiple myeloma.
When a pathogen enters the body, it’s confronted by elements of the innate immune system, which constitute the first line of defense.
Once breached, the adaptive response takes over, but it typically takes few days to be effective.
Immunity is the processes that occur to defend the body against foreign organisms or molecules.
Immunity includes:
Inflammation.
Complement activation.
Phagocytosis.
Antibody synthesis.
Effector T lymphocytes.
White blood cells & Immunity (The Guyton and Hall Physiology)Maryam Fida
Leukocytes or WBCs are the mobile units of the body’s immune defense system.
Immunity is the body’s ability to resist or eliminate potentially harmful foreign materials or abnormal cells.
WBC count: 5000 to 11000/ul of blood
GRANULOCYTES
Polymorphonuclear neutrophils 60-70%
Polymorphonuclear eosinophils 2-3%
Polymorphonuclear basophils 0.4%
NON-GRANULOCYTES
Monocytes 5.3%
Lymphocytes 30%
Granulocytes and monocytes are formed and stored only in bone marrow
Lymphocytes and plasma cells are formed and stored mainly in various lymphoid tissue such as lymph node, spleen, thymus and tonsils as well as in bone marrow.
GRANULOCYTES
4 to 8 hours in blood and 4 to 5 days in tissues
MONOCYTES
Monocytes also have a short transit time:
10 to 20 hours in blood and In tissue they swell to much larger size to become tissue macrophages.
LYMPHOCYTES
weeks to months
neutrophil
. 60-70% of leukocytes
nucleus: 2-5 lobes
Counting the number of lobes and grouping them is called Arneth count.
Shift to left means (increase no of young and predominant WBCs) e.g During acute infection.
Shift to right means, old cells are predominant. e.g During recovery phase
NEUTROPENIA
Decrease in neutrophils count
Typhoid
AIDS and viral hepatitis
Kalazar fever
Bone marrow depression by drugs and radiations
NEUTROPHILIA
Increase in neutrophils count
Appendicitis , Tonsillitis, Pneumonia
Burns, Hemorrhage, MI, Pain
Hypoxia, Pregnancy
BASOPHIL
Their cytoplasmic granules take up basic dyes and appear deep blue
MAST CELLS are derived from basophils under the influence of interleukins 3 and 4
Under many allergic conditions basophils and mast cells bursts and releases
Histamine
Bradykinin
Serotonin
Slow reacting substance of anaphylaxis
Heparin
Lysosomal enzymes
It is the capacity of the human body to resist and destroy the invading organisms or toxins.
Julius Donath and Karl Landsteiner (1904)reported autoantibodies can cause disease by showing that autoantibodies (‘hemolysins’) caused paroxysmal cold hemoglobinuria.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
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Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
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Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
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- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
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Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
2. Other theory's
• Side chain theory
• Direct template theory
• Indirect template theory
• Natural selection theory
3. Side chain theory
• Ehrlich (1900)
• Cells have surface receptors which have
capability to react with substances having
complementary side chains
• This theory is abandoned when Landsteiner
explained
Antibodies could be formed against
not only natural antigens but also against various
synthetic chemicals (riboflavin, estradiol & L-
thyroxine)
4.
5. Direct template theory
• Breinl & haurowitz
• Alexander
• Mudd
• The antigen enters antibody forming cells and
acts as a template so that antibodies are formed
with complimentary combining sites to antigen
• Pauling 1940 specificity was determined by
folding of the antibody to form tertiary structure
fitting antigen molecule
6.
7. Indirect template theory
• Burnet fenner 1949
• A genocopy of antigenic
determinant was in corporated in
antibody producing cell genome
and transmitted to progeny cells
8. Natural selection theory
• Jerne 1955
• Million globulin molecules are formed in
embryonic life with full range of antigenic
specificities ( natural antibodies)
• Antigen when enters it combines with nearly
matching
• This move on to the antibody producing cells
they get activated and produce same kind of
antibody
9.
10. What clonal selection explains..?
• It explains how the cells of immune
system will react with a specific antigen
that enters body
11. Who introduced it..?
• Australian doctor Frank Macfarlane
Burnet in 1957
• Widely accepted model
12. Postulates
1. Each lymphocyte bears a single type of receptor
with a unique specificity (by V(D)J
recombination).
2. Receptor occupation is required for cell
activation.
3. The clone cells derived from an activated
lymphocyte will bear receptors of identical
specificity as the parental cell.
4. Forbidden cells will be deleted at an early stage.
13. Primary responseFirst exposure to a foreign antigen, a lag phase occurs in
which no antibody is produced, but activated B cells are
differentiating into plasma cells. (The lag phase can be as
short as 2-3 days, but often is longer, sometimes as long as
weeks or months.)
• The amount of antibody produced is usually low.
• Antibody level declines to the point where it may be
undetectable.
• The first antibody produced is mainly IgM (although small
amounts of Ig G are usually also produced).
14. Secondary Response
• second dose of the same antigen is given days or even
years later, an accelerated immune response (IR)
occurs. (This lag phase is usually very short (e.g. 3 or 4
days) due to the presence of memory cells.)
• The amount of antibody produced rises to a high level.
• Antibody level tends to remain high for longer.
• The main type of antibody produced is IgG (although
small amounts of IgM are sometimes produced).
15. Cell mediated immune response
cellular immunity
T-cell immunity
many cells
• Lymphocytes
• Macrophages
• Nk cells
• No anti
body's
16. Antigen presenting cells
• This induces the invaded microorganism to release
the antigenic materials…& this antigenic material is
presented to T-cells
• Types
1. Macrophages (major role) present in all lymphoid
tissues
2. Dendritic cells
a) Dendritic cells of spleen( filter blood)
b) Follicular dendritic cells lymph node (trapping ag)
c) Langerhans dendritic cells in skin (traps skin
contact organisms
B-lymphocytes antigen receiving & presenting
17. Entry of micro organism
Phagocytosis or APC
Antigen is digested into peptides
Digested peptide binds with HLA in class II MHC molecule present on APC
TCR on T-cell recognizes the antigen and
T-cell activated
Activated T-cell proliferates
Enters circulation
interleukin also released from macrophages
18. T-cells types & role
• Helper T-cells (CD4)
TH1…IL-2 activates other t cells and gamma interferon it
increases the phagocytic activity
TH2…IL4 & 5 B-cell activation, proliferation of plasma cells,
& antibodies by plasma cell
• Cytotoxic T-cells (CD8)(killer T-cells)
Releases cytotoxic substances (lysosomal enzymes)
Destroys own body tissue affected by foreign bodies
• Suppressor T-cells (regulatory T-cells)
Suppress the activity of T-cells (CD8 & CD4)
• Memory T-cells
Not enters circulation remains in tissue.
19. Humoral immune response
Antibody mediated immunity
B-cell immunity
• Antibodies are secreted into body fluids (blood &
lymph)
• Humours (Latin) = fluid
• It is the major defense mechanism againest
bacterial infection
20. Entry of micro organism
Phagocytosis or APC
Antigen is digested into peptides
Digested peptide binds with HLA in class II MHC molecule present on APC
BCR on B-cell recognizes the antigen and
B cell activated
B-cell proliferation
Plasma cells memory cells
interleukin also released from macrophages
21. • Plasma cells
2000 antibodies/sec (immunoglobulins)
• Memory cells
present in all lymph nodes in in-active form until
the body is exposed with same antigen
second exposure to same antigen results in rapid
production of antibodies…. ( This is the principle in
vaccination)