The document summarizes the production and classification of speech sounds in English. It discusses how speech sounds are produced, including the role of the vocal cords, oral cavity, and nasal cavity. It then covers the classification of consonant sounds according to their place of articulation (e.g. bilabial, alveolar), manner of articulation (e.g. stops, fricatives), and voicing (voiced vs. voiceless). Vowel sounds are also briefly discussed. The document provides detailed descriptions and examples to explain these linguistic concepts.

1. The production and
classifications of speech
sounds.

3. How speech sounds are produced?
Consonants
Definition
Classification

4. The speech organs / articulators

5. - At this point, the air may go in either way:
 It may go into the oral cavity
& get out through the mouth
 Or it may go into the nasal
cavity & get out though the nose
How are speech sounds produced?
- When we are making sounds, the air from the lungs comes
up through the windpipe and arrives at the larynx
- Then it goes through the vocal cords into the pharynx
and up to the uvula

6. Oral sounds vs. Nasal sounds
1. Oral sounds are the sounds in
the production of which the soft
palate is raised, blocking off the
nasal cavity so that the
airstream can only get out
through the mouth.
Eg: /t/, /k/, /f/

7. 2. Nasal sounds are the sounds
in the production of which the soft
palate is lowered, blocking off the
oral cavity so that the airstream
can only get out through the
nose
There are only three nasal sounds
in English:
/m/, /n, /η/
Oral sounds vs. Nasal sounds

8. 3. How are consonant sounds produced?
When we are making sounds, if two articulators
come together, obstructing the air-stream and the
air-stream cannot get out freely, we have consonant
sounds
E.g. /t/, /p/, /b/, /n/
4. How are vowel sounds produced?
When we are making sounds, if there is no
obstruction to the flow of air as it passes from the
larynx to the lips and the air can get out freely, then
we have vowel sounds.
E.g. /i:/, /α:/, /e/, /ɪ/
Consonants vs. Vowels

9.  Problem in English: some consonants do not
really obstruct the flow of air more than
vowels do
Eg. the beginning sounds of 'hay' and 'way'
=> The classification of sound can be based on
their distribution
Consonants vs. Vowels

10. 5. How are voiced sounds produced?
When we are producing sounds, the air-stream goes
through the vocal cords. If the vocal cords come
together, obstructing the air-stream, the air-stream
cannot get out through them freely and it makes
them vibrate, then we have voiced sounds.
e.g. /d/, /v/, /m/
6. How are voiceless sounds produced?
When we are making sounds, the air-stream goes
through the vocal cords. If the vocal cords come
apart, they are open. The air-stream can go out
through them freely and it does not make them
vibrate, then we have voiceless sounds.
e.g. /s/, /t/, /p/
Voiced sounds vs. Voiceless
sounds

11. Consonants

12.  The sounds in the production of which one
articulator moves towards another or two
articulators come together, obstructing the air-
stream and the air-stream can’t get out freely
Definition

13. In order to form consonants, the air-stream
through the vocal cords must be obstructed in
some way. Therefore, consonants can be classified
according to:
• the place where the air-stream is obstructed (the place
of articulation), and
• the way in which the air-stream is obstructed (the
manner of articulation)
• Voice
Classification

14.  The place of articulation is the location of the
obstruction of the air-stream in the articulation of
consonants
 It describes the point at which the articulators
actually touch or are at their closest
(Notes: The terms used to describe the sounds are
those which denote the place of articulation of the
sounds)
According to place of
articulation

15. Places Articulators Examples
/p/, /b/, /m/, /w/
/f/, /v/
/θ/, /ð/
/s/, /z/; /t/, /d/;/n/;/l/
/j/
/k/,/g/,
/ŋ/
/h/
Bilabial Upper lip + lower lip
Labio-dental Upper teeth + lower lip
Dental/ Interdental Tongue + teeth
Alveolar Alveolar ridge + tongue
Palato- alveolar
/post alveolar
Joint of hard palate and alveolar ridge
+ tongue
Palatal Hard palate+ tongue
Velar Soft palate + tongue
Glottal Vocal cords
According to place of articulation

16. According to place of articulation
1. Bilabials: are the sounds made with the two lips pressed
together or coming together.
2. Labio-dentals: are the sounds which are produced with the lower
lip touching the upper front teeth.

17. 3. Dentals (interdentals) are the sounds which are produced with
the tip or blade of the tongue touching the upper front teeth.
e.g.
4. Alveolars: are the sounds which are produced with the tip or
blade of the tongue touching or approaching the alveolar ridge.
e.g.

18. According to place of articulation
5. Palato – alveolars (Post-alveolar)are the sounds which are produced
with the tongue tip or blade coming close to the area between the back of
the alveolar ridge and the front of the hard palate.
e.g. /r/, /t∫/; /dʒ/

19. 6. Palatal: is the sound which is produced with the front of
the tongue coming close to the hard palate.
7. Velars: are the sounds which are produced with the back of
the tongue touching the soft palate.
e.g./k/, /g/, /η/

20. 8. Glottals: are the sounds which are produced
without the active use of the tongue and other parts
of the mouth.
e.g./h/

21.  Manner of articulation is the way in which the
air-stream is obstructed or altered in the
production of speech sounds. It describes the
types of obstruction caused by the narrowing
or closure of the articulators.
According to manner of
articulation

22. According to manner of
articulation
Movement of Articulators Examples
Oral/
stop/plosive
Complete closure
Fricative
Affricate
Narrowing, resulting in audible friction
Lateral/ Liquid Closure in centre of mouth, air escapes
through both sides of the tongue
Glide/
Approximant
Slight narrowing, not enough to
cause friction
Nasal
Complete closure in the mouth,
air escapes through nose
Closure, then slow separation

23. 1a. Oral stops (Plosives): are the sounds produced with the air-
stream being stopped in the oral cavity and the soft palate is raised
blocking off the nasal cavity. Then the two articulators come apart
quickly and the air escapes through the oral tract.
e.g. /t/, /d/
/p/, /b/
/k/, /g/
According to manner of
articulation
1b. Nasal stops (Nasals): they are produced with the air-stream
being stopped in the oral cavity but the soft palate is down so that
the air can go out through the nose.
e.g. /m/, /n/, /η/
- A complete closure of articultors or constriction of the air stream
- Two articlulators come apart quickly, so a plosion is made

24. 2. Fricatives: are the sounds produced with two
articulators coming close together but there is still a small
opening between them so the air-stream is partially
obstructed and an audible friction noise (a hissing sound)
is produced.
e.g. /s/, /z/
/f/, /v/
/ θ /, / ð /
/∫/, /ʒ/
According to manner of
articulation
Notes: Although both oral stops and nasal stops can be
classified as “stops”, the term “stop” itself is almost used by
phoneticians to indicate an oral stop, and the term “nasal”
to indicate a nasal stop.

25. 3. Affricates: are the sounds which are produced when a
stop is immediately followed by a fricative.
e.g. /t∫/; /dʒ/
According to manner of
articulation
4. Lateral/ liquid: is the sound which is made when the air-
stream is obstructed at a point along the centre of the oral tract,
with incomplete closure between one or both sides of the tongue
and the roof of the mouth.
e.g./l/
5. Glide/Approximants: are the sounds in the production of
which two articulators come close together but without the
vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a friction
noise is produced.
e.g./j/, /w/, /r/

26. 1. Voiced consonants: are produced when the
vocal cords are vibrating.
e.g.
2. Voiceless consonants: are produced when the
vocal cords are not vibrating.
e.g.
According to voicing

27. 1. A voiced/voiceless pair such as /s/ and /z/ are distinguished not only
by the presence or absence of voice but also by the degree of breath and
muscular effort involved in the articulation
Fortis vs. Lenis
2. It is generally said that those English consonants which are usually
voiced tend to be articulated with relatively weak energy, whereas those
which are always voiceless are relatively strong. Thus, the voiceless
consonants are sometimes called ‘fortis’ meaning ‘strong’, and the voiced
consonants in opposition are then called ‘lenis’ meaning ‘weak’.
3. Fortis consonants have the effect of shortening a preceding vowel. The
effect is most noticeable in the case of long vowels and diphthong,
though it does also affect short vowels.
E.g. see seed seat

28. Voicing Place of articulation Manner of articulation
/f/ voiceless Labio-dental fricative
/m/ voiced bilabial nasal
/k/ velar
voiceless Stop/plosive
/d/ voiced
Describing English consonants
alveolar stop

29. Identifying English consonants
voiced velar nasal:
voiceless palato-alveolar fricative:
voiced bilabial stop:
voiced labio-dental fricative:
voiced alveolar lateral:
voiceless palato-alveolar affricate:
voiced dental fricative:
/η/
/f/
/b/
/v/
/l/
/t∫/
/ð/

30. 1. stop 2. Nasal 3. Fricative 4.
Affrica
te
Glide/a
ppxima
nt
1. Bilabial /p/, /b/+
/m/+ W+
2. Labio dental /f/, /v/+
3. Interdental
4. Post alveolar /∫/, /ʒ/+ / t∫ /, /
dʒ /
/r/