Effect of Fractionation and Pyrolysis on Fuel Properties of Poultry LitterLPE Learning Center
The document summarizes research on the effect of fractionation and pyrolysis on the fuel properties of poultry litter. Key findings include:
- Pyrolyzing the coarse fraction of poultry litter at 300°C captured the most energy (68.71%) in the charcoal produced and resulted in the highest calorific value (17.39 MJ/kg).
- Pyrolysis above 500°C captured less carbon but produced a light condensate fraction that could be used as a low-grade liquid fuel.
- The medium condensate fraction captured 27.54% of nitrogen and could be used as fertilizer.
- Pyrolysis significantly reduced nutrients like ammonium
The document summarizes a presentation on pyrolysis for waste plastics recycling. It discusses the advantages of plastics pyrolysis, characteristics of different waste plastics during thermal degradation, and results from lab-scale pyrolysis experiments and product analysis. Thermogravimetric analysis was used to determine the temperature range for plastic degradation. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis identified functional groups in volatile and solid pyrolysis products, including aliphatic hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons, alcohols, ethers, esters and carboxylic acids. The optimal temperature range for lab-scale plastic pyrolysis was determined to be 400-500°C.
This study aimed to compare quantitative fiber analysis results from AATCC Method 20A (the standard chemical separation method) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) for polyester/cotton blends. 8 fabric samples of varying polyester/cotton compositions were analyzed using both methods. The DSC results agreed well with the chemical separation method in determining the component of chief weight for classification purposes. A reproducibility study testing the same samples multiple times also showed low variance and standard deviation for the DSC method, indicating it can reliably quantify polyester/cotton blends quickly without solvents. The goal is for DSC to serve as a faster screening technique to the more time-consuming chemical separation analysis currently used by
To Study The Viscometric Measurement Of Substituted-2-Diphenylbutanamide And ...IOSR Journals
Recently in this laboratory the viscometric measurement of 4-[4-(4-chlorophenyl]-4-hydroxy piperidin-1-yl]-N, N-dimethyl-2, 2-diphenylbutanamide[CPHDD] and (2S, 6R)-7-chloro -2, 4, 6-trimethoxy-6'-methyl-3H, 4'H-spiro[1-benzofuran 2, 1’-] cychohex-2-ene]-3,4'-dione[CTMBCD] were carried out at different percentage compositions of solvent to investigate the solute-solvent interactions of drugs with solvent and the effect of dilution of the solvent. The effects of various substituents were also investigated. The results obtained during this investigation gave detail information about pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of these drugs.
Optimization of Extraction Parameters for Natural Dye from Pterocarpus santal...IJERA Editor
Pterocarpus species has been admired for centuries for its dye, beautiful color, hardness and durability. The present study deals with the extraction of natural dye from Pterocarpus wood materials. Response surface methodology was used to study the optimal conditions for the extraction of dye. Factors such as extraction temperature, extraction time, and solid to liquid ratio were identified to be significantly affecting natural dye extraction efficiency. By using three-level three-factor Box-Behnken design, the optimized conditions for dye extraction by different techniques such as Solvent, Ultrasonic and Microwave extraction method. Microwave assisted extraction method showed the highest natural dye yield percentage which is 50.0 for ethyl acetate solvent and 50.2 for methanol solvent.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI)inventionjournals
The document describes an experiment to produce diesel fuel from a mixture of polypropylene and polystyrene waste plastics through a two-step process without using a catalyst. In the first step, the plastic mixture was heated to 400°C to produce a liquid fuel with a density of 0.89 g/ml. In the second step, fractional distillation of the liquid fuel was performed to collect diesel grade fuel at 285°C, producing a density of 0.81 g/ml. Analysis of the diesel fuel using GC/MS identified 20 hydrocarbon compounds present. The highest yields were 19.49% for diesel fuel and 20.36% for solid residue.
Effect of Fractionation and Pyrolysis on Fuel Properties of Poultry LitterLPE Learning Center
The document summarizes research on the effect of fractionation and pyrolysis on the fuel properties of poultry litter. Key findings include:
- Pyrolyzing the coarse fraction of poultry litter at 300°C captured the most energy (68.71%) in the charcoal produced and resulted in the highest calorific value (17.39 MJ/kg).
- Pyrolysis above 500°C captured less carbon but produced a light condensate fraction that could be used as a low-grade liquid fuel.
- The medium condensate fraction captured 27.54% of nitrogen and could be used as fertilizer.
- Pyrolysis significantly reduced nutrients like ammonium
The document summarizes a presentation on pyrolysis for waste plastics recycling. It discusses the advantages of plastics pyrolysis, characteristics of different waste plastics during thermal degradation, and results from lab-scale pyrolysis experiments and product analysis. Thermogravimetric analysis was used to determine the temperature range for plastic degradation. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis identified functional groups in volatile and solid pyrolysis products, including aliphatic hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons, alcohols, ethers, esters and carboxylic acids. The optimal temperature range for lab-scale plastic pyrolysis was determined to be 400-500°C.
This study aimed to compare quantitative fiber analysis results from AATCC Method 20A (the standard chemical separation method) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) for polyester/cotton blends. 8 fabric samples of varying polyester/cotton compositions were analyzed using both methods. The DSC results agreed well with the chemical separation method in determining the component of chief weight for classification purposes. A reproducibility study testing the same samples multiple times also showed low variance and standard deviation for the DSC method, indicating it can reliably quantify polyester/cotton blends quickly without solvents. The goal is for DSC to serve as a faster screening technique to the more time-consuming chemical separation analysis currently used by
To Study The Viscometric Measurement Of Substituted-2-Diphenylbutanamide And ...IOSR Journals
Recently in this laboratory the viscometric measurement of 4-[4-(4-chlorophenyl]-4-hydroxy piperidin-1-yl]-N, N-dimethyl-2, 2-diphenylbutanamide[CPHDD] and (2S, 6R)-7-chloro -2, 4, 6-trimethoxy-6'-methyl-3H, 4'H-spiro[1-benzofuran 2, 1’-] cychohex-2-ene]-3,4'-dione[CTMBCD] were carried out at different percentage compositions of solvent to investigate the solute-solvent interactions of drugs with solvent and the effect of dilution of the solvent. The effects of various substituents were also investigated. The results obtained during this investigation gave detail information about pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of these drugs.
Optimization of Extraction Parameters for Natural Dye from Pterocarpus santal...IJERA Editor
Pterocarpus species has been admired for centuries for its dye, beautiful color, hardness and durability. The present study deals with the extraction of natural dye from Pterocarpus wood materials. Response surface methodology was used to study the optimal conditions for the extraction of dye. Factors such as extraction temperature, extraction time, and solid to liquid ratio were identified to be significantly affecting natural dye extraction efficiency. By using three-level three-factor Box-Behnken design, the optimized conditions for dye extraction by different techniques such as Solvent, Ultrasonic and Microwave extraction method. Microwave assisted extraction method showed the highest natural dye yield percentage which is 50.0 for ethyl acetate solvent and 50.2 for methanol solvent.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI)inventionjournals
The document describes an experiment to produce diesel fuel from a mixture of polypropylene and polystyrene waste plastics through a two-step process without using a catalyst. In the first step, the plastic mixture was heated to 400°C to produce a liquid fuel with a density of 0.89 g/ml. In the second step, fractional distillation of the liquid fuel was performed to collect diesel grade fuel at 285°C, producing a density of 0.81 g/ml. Analysis of the diesel fuel using GC/MS identified 20 hydrocarbon compounds present. The highest yields were 19.49% for diesel fuel and 20.36% for solid residue.
The presentation delas with a comparison between plastic bags and plastic bags. I have taken into consideration the economic as well as environmental effects of the use of both. The tool used was life cycle assessment through softwares like CES and EIO-LCA.
This document examines energy recovery from mixed paper waste through combustion. It discusses that paper waste makes up a large portion of municipal solid waste and has benefits as an energy source such as being free of contaminants, having a high heating value, and producing low emissions. The document then explores emissions from combusting paper waste and various control methods. It outlines an experimental study to determine the calorific value of different paper types and calculate the energy value of mixed paper waste samples. The goal is to estimate the energy potential from known compositions of mixed paper.
The document discusses the conversion of waste plastics into fuel through a thermal degradation process without using catalysts or chemicals. None coded waste plastics are subjected to thermal cracking in a muffle furnace at 420°C and in a reactor from 300-420°C. This produces 85% liquid fuel, 9% light gases, and 6% carbon residue. Analysis of the produced fuel using GC/MS and FT-IR found it contains hydrocarbon compounds ranging from C3-C28, including alkanes and alkenes that could be used as a fuel or feedstock.
This document proposes a pilot plant design to convert waste plastic into fuel through pyrolysis. It discusses:
1) Analyzing plastics and their calorific values compared to fuels.
2) A pre-treatment process to clean plastics including washing, shredding, drying and removing impurities.
3) Using amorphous alumino-silicate as the catalyst for cracking plastics in the pyrolysis reactor.
4) Simulating the process in Hysys to analyze material and energy balances.
Municipal solid waste (MSW) can be converted to energy through various processes. Pyrolysis involves heating waste in an oxygen-limited environment to produce syngas. Gasification uses partial combustion at high temperatures to produce syngas. Plasma arc gasification uses an electric arc at 4000-7000°C to convert waste to syngas and vitrified slag. Mass burn incineration fully combusts waste at 500-1200°C to produce steam for electricity generation. The composition and properties of MSW can vary significantly depending on factors like income level and source material. Converting MSW to energy provides a way to reduce waste while generating renewable power.
The document discusses a life cycle analysis of different pallet types and phytosanitary treatment methods. It finds that methyl bromide fumigation has the largest impact on global warming and ozone depletion, while conventional heat treatment has the largest impacts across other environmental categories. Microwave and radio frequency treatment produce lower life cycle impacts than conventional heat treatment or methyl bromide. Wooden pallets with conventional or alternative treatments have a 10-20% lower carbon footprint over their lifecycle than plastic pallets or wood treated with methyl bromide. Plastic pallets do not clearly have environmental advantages over treated wood. Longer heat treatment schedules increase costs and environmental impacts significantly.
Prediction of recovery energy from ultimate analysis of waste generation in ...IJECEIAES
Refuse derived fuel (RDF) is an environmentally friendly renewable fuel developed to reduce waste generation. RDF can consist of various kinds of waste such as paper and gardens. One of the critical parameters is the chemical element and calorific value. The purpose of this study was to determine the potential for waste reduction and the relationship of ultimate longevity in RDF to the calorific value. This study's paper and garden waste mixture were P0 (100% paper), P25 (75% paper and 25% garden), P50 (50% paper and 50% garden), P75 (25% paper and 75% garden), and P100 (100% garden). The calorific value of the mixture can reach 3.6-5.2 kWh/kg. Simultaneously the relationship of ultimate elements nitrogen (N), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and ash affects the heating value of RDF. Sampling the application in Depok City can reduce waste by 6.67%, with the potential for electrical energy from paper and garden wastes of 358,903.8 kWh and 48,681 kWh, respectively. This shows that this energy waste can supply 0.1% of the total daily electricity demand in Depok City.
This document summarizes an economic evaluation of energy saving alternatives for extractive distillation processes. It analyzes optimization, thermal integration, and thermal coupling approaches. Three azeotropic mixtures were studied: ethanol/water, tetrahydrofuran/water, and acetone/methanol. Contrary to literature suggestions, a thermally coupled extractive distillation sequence with a side rectifier did not always have the best results in terms of total annual cost and energy consumption. Preheating the azeotropic feed stream with the bottom stream from the recovery column through thermal integration reduced costs more than using a thermally coupled sequence. The goal is to rigorously assess the benefits of thermal coupling compared to optimization and thermal integration approaches.
PRODUCTION OF LIQUID FUELS FROM WASTE HDPE PLASTICS AND OPTIMIZING PARAMETERSIAEME Publication
In my research of fuel production through waste HDPE and plastic with the help of plastic to catalyst ratio as a catalyst in that first of all i prepare a mild steel closed air tight vessel having a lid on the top of it along with the hole which is attached by a long galvanize steel pipe then I filled the container up ¾ of its height with the waste plastic and polythene then by using external source of heater temperature of closed chamber is arises up to 300o C-450o C from room temperature on which the pyrolysis takes place which converts the waste plastic or polythene in useful fuel whose texture ,odour, colour, and all other properties like flash point ,fire point, cloud point, pour point, viscosity, are almost near to the petrol. After that the outcome fuel from a waste plastic or polythene is used as a normal fuel in a 100 CC bike and found the fuel gives more millage as compare to petrol about 4-6 km. Which increases the efficiency of the engine by 5-8%.& by using Taguchi Technique I optimize the various parameters which affects the production of plastic fuel by using advance technique I found the plastic to catalyst ratio is most affecting parameter.
1) The document presents Muhammad Nauman Yousaf's master's thesis on producing high quality methane through biomass gasification.
2) Through chemical equilibrium modeling in Aspen Plus, Yousaf analyzed the effects of parameters like steam/biomass ratio, temperature, and pressure on syngas composition and methane yield.
3) The results showed that lower gasification temperatures favor higher methane production, and steam is a better oxidizing agent than oxygen or air for syngas quality and heating value. Membrane separation or adsorption were identified as potential techniques for isolating methane from syngas.
Conversion of Plastic Wastes into Fuels - Pyrocrat systems reviewSuhas Dixit
This document summarizes the process of converting waste plastics into liquid fuels through pyrolysis. It discusses that pyrolysis involves heating waste plastics in the absence of oxygen to break the long polymer chains into shorter hydrocarbon chains to produce fuels like gasoline and diesel. The process can yield 69.73% liquid product when using a calcium carbide catalyst at 623K. The produced fuel has properties similar to conventional fuels but has slightly higher exhaust temperatures and lower brake thermal efficiency when used in engines. Converting waste plastics to fuel through pyrolysis provides environmental and economic benefits but requires further improvement to increase engine performance.
This Presentation deals with Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Solid waste Sample, with Importance of every characteristic in the field of Solid Waste Management
This document summarizes a study on the model free kinetics of co-pyrolysis of Malaysian coal and waste plastics blends. Thermogravimetric analysis was used to obtain kinetics data at different heating rates for coal/high density polyethylene blends. Kissinger's and Ozawa-Flynn Wall model free kinetics methods were applied to determine activation energies, pre-exponential factors, and reaction orders. The results showed that a 40:60 coal/plastic blend had the lowest activation energy of 238 kJ/mol by Kissinger's method and 251 kJ/mol by Ozawa-Flynn Wall, indicating it was the best blend composition studied. Activation energies generally increased from pure coal to pure plastic.
IRJET- Extraction of Pure Methane, its Analysis & its ApplicationsIRJET Journal
This document summarizes the extraction of pure methane from biogas for various applications. It discusses how biogas is composed primarily of methane but also contains other gases like carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide. It describes the processes of membrane separation and H2S scrubbing to extract pure methane. Gas chromatography analysis was used to determine the biogas composition, finding it contains approximately 68.5% methane. The document then discusses potential applications of the extracted methane, including generating electricity by using it to power generators or fuel cells.
PRODUCTION, CHARACTERIZATION AND FUEL PROPERTIES OF ALTERNATIVE DIESEL FUEL F...Anand Mohan
1. The document describes the production and characterization of an alternative diesel fuel produced from the pyrolysis of plastic grocery bags. Plastic grocery bags made of high-density polyethylene were pyrolyzed in a batch reactor at 420-440°C to produce a plastic crude oil.
2. The plastic crude oil was distilled into fractions equivalent to gasoline and diesel fuels, which were then characterized through GC-MS, simulated distillation, SEC, NMR and FT-IR analysis. The analyses showed that the fractions consisted of mixtures of hydrocarbons similar to petroleum fuels.
3. Properties of the diesel fractions like cloud point, pour point and cetane number were comparable or better than conventional ultra-low sulfur diesel
This document summarizes a study on producing conventional fuel from polypropylene (PP) waste plastic.
The process involves thermally degrading and distilling PP waste plastic in a stainless steel reactor at 100-400°C without a catalyst. This produces multiple fuel fractions, with the target third fraction being jet fuel/kerosene that is collected between 180-210°C. Analysis found this fuel fraction contains hydrocarbons from C8-C19 that could potentially be used as aviation fuel or refined further. The process yielded 30.40% third fraction fuel and took 6-6.30 hours to complete.
Preliminary study on the conversion of different waste plastics into fuel oilAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on converting different waste plastics into fuel oil through thermal cracking. Experiments were conducted to crack polypropylene, low density polyethylene, high density polyethylene, and polystyrene plastics at different temperatures. The amount of oil produced increased with temperature until reaching a maximum, while the solid residue decreased. Low density polyethylene produced the most oil at 250°C, yielding 44.9% residue and 53% gaseous products. High density polyethylene and polystyrene also showed increasing oil yields with temperature until reaching a plateau. Thermal cracking was performed as it converts waste plastics into usable resources with minimal hazardous gas emissions.
This document discusses optimizing municipal solid waste (MSW) feed for waste-to-energy practices. It analyzes the characteristics of waste materials from a pulp and paper mill, including moisture content, ash content, calorific value, and elemental composition. The goal is to produce a blended MSW fuel with high and consistent calorific value that is suitable for combustion in waste-to-energy plants. Mathematical models are used to predict the calorific value of blended waste samples based on their physical and chemical properties. The blending is optimized to maximize energy output while meeting standards for emissions and combustion stability.
fuel from plastic wastes( conversion of waste plastic into useful fuels)sourabh nagarkar
This document discusses converting plastic waste into fuels using pyrolysis. It begins with an introduction to plastic-to-fuel conversion and why it is needed given the large amounts of plastic waste. The document then discusses the pyrolysis process, how plastic is selected for conversion, and the methodology used. Test results are presented showing the fuel properties and engine performance when using fuels derived from plastic waste. While conversion to fuel solves the plastic waste problem and fuel shortage issues, there are also some disadvantages like lower engine efficiency and higher exhaust temperatures. The document concludes that plastic-to-fuel conversion provides an effective way to address both the plastic debris in oceans and future fuel needs.
Life-cycle assessment or LCA (also known as life-cycle analysis) is a methodology for assessing environmental impacts associated with all the stages of the life-cycle of a commercial product, process, or service. For instance, in the case of a manufactured product, environmental impacts are assessed from raw material extraction and processing (cradle), through the product's manufacture, distribution, and use, to the recycling or final disposal of the materials composing it.
The presentation delas with a comparison between plastic bags and plastic bags. I have taken into consideration the economic as well as environmental effects of the use of both. The tool used was life cycle assessment through softwares like CES and EIO-LCA.
This document examines energy recovery from mixed paper waste through combustion. It discusses that paper waste makes up a large portion of municipal solid waste and has benefits as an energy source such as being free of contaminants, having a high heating value, and producing low emissions. The document then explores emissions from combusting paper waste and various control methods. It outlines an experimental study to determine the calorific value of different paper types and calculate the energy value of mixed paper waste samples. The goal is to estimate the energy potential from known compositions of mixed paper.
The document discusses the conversion of waste plastics into fuel through a thermal degradation process without using catalysts or chemicals. None coded waste plastics are subjected to thermal cracking in a muffle furnace at 420°C and in a reactor from 300-420°C. This produces 85% liquid fuel, 9% light gases, and 6% carbon residue. Analysis of the produced fuel using GC/MS and FT-IR found it contains hydrocarbon compounds ranging from C3-C28, including alkanes and alkenes that could be used as a fuel or feedstock.
This document proposes a pilot plant design to convert waste plastic into fuel through pyrolysis. It discusses:
1) Analyzing plastics and their calorific values compared to fuels.
2) A pre-treatment process to clean plastics including washing, shredding, drying and removing impurities.
3) Using amorphous alumino-silicate as the catalyst for cracking plastics in the pyrolysis reactor.
4) Simulating the process in Hysys to analyze material and energy balances.
Municipal solid waste (MSW) can be converted to energy through various processes. Pyrolysis involves heating waste in an oxygen-limited environment to produce syngas. Gasification uses partial combustion at high temperatures to produce syngas. Plasma arc gasification uses an electric arc at 4000-7000°C to convert waste to syngas and vitrified slag. Mass burn incineration fully combusts waste at 500-1200°C to produce steam for electricity generation. The composition and properties of MSW can vary significantly depending on factors like income level and source material. Converting MSW to energy provides a way to reduce waste while generating renewable power.
The document discusses a life cycle analysis of different pallet types and phytosanitary treatment methods. It finds that methyl bromide fumigation has the largest impact on global warming and ozone depletion, while conventional heat treatment has the largest impacts across other environmental categories. Microwave and radio frequency treatment produce lower life cycle impacts than conventional heat treatment or methyl bromide. Wooden pallets with conventional or alternative treatments have a 10-20% lower carbon footprint over their lifecycle than plastic pallets or wood treated with methyl bromide. Plastic pallets do not clearly have environmental advantages over treated wood. Longer heat treatment schedules increase costs and environmental impacts significantly.
Prediction of recovery energy from ultimate analysis of waste generation in ...IJECEIAES
Refuse derived fuel (RDF) is an environmentally friendly renewable fuel developed to reduce waste generation. RDF can consist of various kinds of waste such as paper and gardens. One of the critical parameters is the chemical element and calorific value. The purpose of this study was to determine the potential for waste reduction and the relationship of ultimate longevity in RDF to the calorific value. This study's paper and garden waste mixture were P0 (100% paper), P25 (75% paper and 25% garden), P50 (50% paper and 50% garden), P75 (25% paper and 75% garden), and P100 (100% garden). The calorific value of the mixture can reach 3.6-5.2 kWh/kg. Simultaneously the relationship of ultimate elements nitrogen (N), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and ash affects the heating value of RDF. Sampling the application in Depok City can reduce waste by 6.67%, with the potential for electrical energy from paper and garden wastes of 358,903.8 kWh and 48,681 kWh, respectively. This shows that this energy waste can supply 0.1% of the total daily electricity demand in Depok City.
This document summarizes an economic evaluation of energy saving alternatives for extractive distillation processes. It analyzes optimization, thermal integration, and thermal coupling approaches. Three azeotropic mixtures were studied: ethanol/water, tetrahydrofuran/water, and acetone/methanol. Contrary to literature suggestions, a thermally coupled extractive distillation sequence with a side rectifier did not always have the best results in terms of total annual cost and energy consumption. Preheating the azeotropic feed stream with the bottom stream from the recovery column through thermal integration reduced costs more than using a thermally coupled sequence. The goal is to rigorously assess the benefits of thermal coupling compared to optimization and thermal integration approaches.
PRODUCTION OF LIQUID FUELS FROM WASTE HDPE PLASTICS AND OPTIMIZING PARAMETERSIAEME Publication
In my research of fuel production through waste HDPE and plastic with the help of plastic to catalyst ratio as a catalyst in that first of all i prepare a mild steel closed air tight vessel having a lid on the top of it along with the hole which is attached by a long galvanize steel pipe then I filled the container up ¾ of its height with the waste plastic and polythene then by using external source of heater temperature of closed chamber is arises up to 300o C-450o C from room temperature on which the pyrolysis takes place which converts the waste plastic or polythene in useful fuel whose texture ,odour, colour, and all other properties like flash point ,fire point, cloud point, pour point, viscosity, are almost near to the petrol. After that the outcome fuel from a waste plastic or polythene is used as a normal fuel in a 100 CC bike and found the fuel gives more millage as compare to petrol about 4-6 km. Which increases the efficiency of the engine by 5-8%.& by using Taguchi Technique I optimize the various parameters which affects the production of plastic fuel by using advance technique I found the plastic to catalyst ratio is most affecting parameter.
1) The document presents Muhammad Nauman Yousaf's master's thesis on producing high quality methane through biomass gasification.
2) Through chemical equilibrium modeling in Aspen Plus, Yousaf analyzed the effects of parameters like steam/biomass ratio, temperature, and pressure on syngas composition and methane yield.
3) The results showed that lower gasification temperatures favor higher methane production, and steam is a better oxidizing agent than oxygen or air for syngas quality and heating value. Membrane separation or adsorption were identified as potential techniques for isolating methane from syngas.
Conversion of Plastic Wastes into Fuels - Pyrocrat systems reviewSuhas Dixit
This document summarizes the process of converting waste plastics into liquid fuels through pyrolysis. It discusses that pyrolysis involves heating waste plastics in the absence of oxygen to break the long polymer chains into shorter hydrocarbon chains to produce fuels like gasoline and diesel. The process can yield 69.73% liquid product when using a calcium carbide catalyst at 623K. The produced fuel has properties similar to conventional fuels but has slightly higher exhaust temperatures and lower brake thermal efficiency when used in engines. Converting waste plastics to fuel through pyrolysis provides environmental and economic benefits but requires further improvement to increase engine performance.
This Presentation deals with Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Solid waste Sample, with Importance of every characteristic in the field of Solid Waste Management
This document summarizes a study on the model free kinetics of co-pyrolysis of Malaysian coal and waste plastics blends. Thermogravimetric analysis was used to obtain kinetics data at different heating rates for coal/high density polyethylene blends. Kissinger's and Ozawa-Flynn Wall model free kinetics methods were applied to determine activation energies, pre-exponential factors, and reaction orders. The results showed that a 40:60 coal/plastic blend had the lowest activation energy of 238 kJ/mol by Kissinger's method and 251 kJ/mol by Ozawa-Flynn Wall, indicating it was the best blend composition studied. Activation energies generally increased from pure coal to pure plastic.
IRJET- Extraction of Pure Methane, its Analysis & its ApplicationsIRJET Journal
This document summarizes the extraction of pure methane from biogas for various applications. It discusses how biogas is composed primarily of methane but also contains other gases like carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide. It describes the processes of membrane separation and H2S scrubbing to extract pure methane. Gas chromatography analysis was used to determine the biogas composition, finding it contains approximately 68.5% methane. The document then discusses potential applications of the extracted methane, including generating electricity by using it to power generators or fuel cells.
PRODUCTION, CHARACTERIZATION AND FUEL PROPERTIES OF ALTERNATIVE DIESEL FUEL F...Anand Mohan
1. The document describes the production and characterization of an alternative diesel fuel produced from the pyrolysis of plastic grocery bags. Plastic grocery bags made of high-density polyethylene were pyrolyzed in a batch reactor at 420-440°C to produce a plastic crude oil.
2. The plastic crude oil was distilled into fractions equivalent to gasoline and diesel fuels, which were then characterized through GC-MS, simulated distillation, SEC, NMR and FT-IR analysis. The analyses showed that the fractions consisted of mixtures of hydrocarbons similar to petroleum fuels.
3. Properties of the diesel fractions like cloud point, pour point and cetane number were comparable or better than conventional ultra-low sulfur diesel
This document summarizes a study on producing conventional fuel from polypropylene (PP) waste plastic.
The process involves thermally degrading and distilling PP waste plastic in a stainless steel reactor at 100-400°C without a catalyst. This produces multiple fuel fractions, with the target third fraction being jet fuel/kerosene that is collected between 180-210°C. Analysis found this fuel fraction contains hydrocarbons from C8-C19 that could potentially be used as aviation fuel or refined further. The process yielded 30.40% third fraction fuel and took 6-6.30 hours to complete.
Preliminary study on the conversion of different waste plastics into fuel oilAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on converting different waste plastics into fuel oil through thermal cracking. Experiments were conducted to crack polypropylene, low density polyethylene, high density polyethylene, and polystyrene plastics at different temperatures. The amount of oil produced increased with temperature until reaching a maximum, while the solid residue decreased. Low density polyethylene produced the most oil at 250°C, yielding 44.9% residue and 53% gaseous products. High density polyethylene and polystyrene also showed increasing oil yields with temperature until reaching a plateau. Thermal cracking was performed as it converts waste plastics into usable resources with minimal hazardous gas emissions.
This document discusses optimizing municipal solid waste (MSW) feed for waste-to-energy practices. It analyzes the characteristics of waste materials from a pulp and paper mill, including moisture content, ash content, calorific value, and elemental composition. The goal is to produce a blended MSW fuel with high and consistent calorific value that is suitable for combustion in waste-to-energy plants. Mathematical models are used to predict the calorific value of blended waste samples based on their physical and chemical properties. The blending is optimized to maximize energy output while meeting standards for emissions and combustion stability.
fuel from plastic wastes( conversion of waste plastic into useful fuels)sourabh nagarkar
This document discusses converting plastic waste into fuels using pyrolysis. It begins with an introduction to plastic-to-fuel conversion and why it is needed given the large amounts of plastic waste. The document then discusses the pyrolysis process, how plastic is selected for conversion, and the methodology used. Test results are presented showing the fuel properties and engine performance when using fuels derived from plastic waste. While conversion to fuel solves the plastic waste problem and fuel shortage issues, there are also some disadvantages like lower engine efficiency and higher exhaust temperatures. The document concludes that plastic-to-fuel conversion provides an effective way to address both the plastic debris in oceans and future fuel needs.
Life-cycle assessment or LCA (also known as life-cycle analysis) is a methodology for assessing environmental impacts associated with all the stages of the life-cycle of a commercial product, process, or service. For instance, in the case of a manufactured product, environmental impacts are assessed from raw material extraction and processing (cradle), through the product's manufacture, distribution, and use, to the recycling or final disposal of the materials composing it.
Similar to Classification of municipal solid waste components for thermal conversion in waste to-energy research (20)
Build the Next Generation of Apps with the Einstein 1 Platform.
Rejoignez Philippe Ozil pour une session de workshops qui vous guidera à travers les détails de la plateforme Einstein 1, l'importance des données pour la création d'applications d'intelligence artificielle et les différents outils et technologies que Salesforce propose pour vous apporter tous les bénéfices de l'IA.
Tools & Techniques for Commissioning and Maintaining PV Systems W-Animations ...Transcat
Join us for this solutions-based webinar on the tools and techniques for commissioning and maintaining PV Systems. In this session, we'll review the process of building and maintaining a solar array, starting with installation and commissioning, then reviewing operations and maintenance of the system. This course will review insulation resistance testing, I-V curve testing, earth-bond continuity, ground resistance testing, performance tests, visual inspections, ground and arc fault testing procedures, and power quality analysis.
Fluke Solar Application Specialist Will White is presenting on this engaging topic:
Will has worked in the renewable energy industry since 2005, first as an installer for a small east coast solar integrator before adding sales, design, and project management to his skillset. In 2022, Will joined Fluke as a solar application specialist, where he supports their renewable energy testing equipment like IV-curve tracers, electrical meters, and thermal imaging cameras. Experienced in wind power, solar thermal, energy storage, and all scales of PV, Will has primarily focused on residential and small commercial systems. He is passionate about implementing high-quality, code-compliant installation techniques.
Discover the latest insights on Data Driven Maintenance with our comprehensive webinar presentation. Learn about traditional maintenance challenges, the right approach to utilizing data, and the benefits of adopting a Data Driven Maintenance strategy. Explore real-world examples, industry best practices, and innovative solutions like FMECA and the D3M model. This presentation, led by expert Jules Oudmans, is essential for asset owners looking to optimize their maintenance processes and leverage digital technologies for improved efficiency and performance. Download now to stay ahead in the evolving maintenance landscape.
Applications of artificial Intelligence in Mechanical Engineering.pdfAtif Razi
Historically, mechanical engineering has relied heavily on human expertise and empirical methods to solve complex problems. With the introduction of computer-aided design (CAD) and finite element analysis (FEA), the field took its first steps towards digitization. These tools allowed engineers to simulate and analyze mechanical systems with greater accuracy and efficiency. However, the sheer volume of data generated by modern engineering systems and the increasing complexity of these systems have necessitated more advanced analytical tools, paving the way for AI.
AI offers the capability to process vast amounts of data, identify patterns, and make predictions with a level of speed and accuracy unattainable by traditional methods. This has profound implications for mechanical engineering, enabling more efficient design processes, predictive maintenance strategies, and optimized manufacturing operations. AI-driven tools can learn from historical data, adapt to new information, and continuously improve their performance, making them invaluable in tackling the multifaceted challenges of modern mechanical engineering.
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Null Bangalore | Pentesters Approach to AWS IAMDivyanshu
#Abstract:
- Learn more about the real-world methods for auditing AWS IAM (Identity and Access Management) as a pentester. So let us proceed with a brief discussion of IAM as well as some typical misconfigurations and their potential exploits in order to reinforce the understanding of IAM security best practices.
- Gain actionable insights into AWS IAM policies and roles, using hands on approach.
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- For hands on lab create account on [killercoda.com](https://killercoda.com/cloudsecurity-scenario/)
# Scenario Covered:
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- Exploiting IAM PassRole Misconfiguration
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Try at [killercoda.com](https://killercoda.com/cloudsecurity-scenario/)
Home security is of paramount importance in today's world, where we rely more on technology, home
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https://www.leewayhertz.com/generative-ai-use-cases-and-applications/
Generative AI Use cases applications solutions and implementation.pdf
Classification of municipal solid waste components for thermal conversion in waste to-energy research
1. Classification of municipal solid waste components for thermal
conversion in waste-to-energy research
Hui Zhou, YanQiu Long, AiHong Meng, QingHai Li, YanGuo Zhang ⇑
Key Laboratory for Thermal Science and Power Engineering of Ministry of Education, Department of Thermal Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, PR China
h i g h l i g h t s
MSW components are classified by
proximate and ultimate analyses.
MSW components are classified by TG
characteristics using cluster analysis.
TG characteristics of 26 kinds of MSW
components are discussed.
Typical components can be selected
for thermal conversion research.
g r a p h i c a l a b s t r a c t
Chinar
leaf
Poplar
leaf
Poplar
wood
Ginkgo
leaf
Celery
Pakchoi
Chinese
cabbage
Banana
peel
Spinach
Potato
Rice
Tangerine
peel
Orange
peel
Blank
printing
paper
Newspaper
Rubber
Tissue
paper
Cotton
cloth
Absorbent
cotton
gauze
PVC
Terylene
PET
HDPE
LDPE
PP
PS
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 6 August 2014
Received in revised form 30 November 2014
Accepted 4 December 2014
Available online 15 December 2014
Keywords:
Municipal solid waste
Proximate analysis
Ultimate analysis
Heating value
TGA
Classification
a b s t r a c t
Different researches selected different municipal solid waste (MSW) components to study their thermal
chemical characteristics in waste-to-energy research. Therefore, a specific classification is needed for the
research of thermal conversion of MSW components. In this paper, based on 26 kinds of MSW component
samples, MSW components were classified using cluster analysis method according to the proximate and
ultimate analyses and heating value results, as well as thermogravimetric (TG) characteristics. The clas-
sification groups include vegetables (including banana peel), starch food, orange peel, wood waste, print-
ing paper, cellulose, PVC, PET (including terylene), PE/PP, PS, and rubber. According to the above
classification, typical components can be selected for thermal conversion in waste-to-energy research.
Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Increasing amounts of municipal solid waste (MSW) are gener-
ated in recent years [1]. In China, the amount of municipal solid
waste has grown to 170.81 million tons in 2012 [2]. Traditional
landfill method is facing many problems such as land shortage
and underground water pollution [3]. Therefore, waste to energy
(WTE) methods, including incineration, pyrolysis and gasification
are drawing global attentions [4].
Municipal solid waste is a complicated mixture of food residue,
paper, plastics and some other components [5]. The research about
real MSW mixture is difficult to be repeated, because of the varia-
tion of MSW from region to region and time to time [6]. Besides,
lab-scale research usually takes gram-scale amount of MSW
[7,8], which means there may be some errors about the sampling
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2014.12.015
0016-2361/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 10 62783373; fax: +86 10 62798047 801.
E-mail address: zhangyg@tsinghua.edu.cn (Y. Zhang).
Fuel 145 (2015) 151–157
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Fuel
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fuel
2. process. Therefore, many researches try to study the characteristics
of MSW single components [9–12].
Even the components such as food residue or plastics are to too
general for lab-scale research, the groups themselves are very com-
plex and may include subgroups with totally different properties
and need to be investigated [13]. For example, plastics may include
PE, PP, PS, PVC, and PET, whose thermochemical characteristics are
completely different [14]. Therefore, a more specific classification
is needed for the research of thermal conversion of MSW
components.
Different researchers choose different kinds of components for
thermal conversion research [9,11,15]. Li AM et al. selected paper,
paperboard, wood-chip, cotton cloth, vegetal, orange husk, PE, PVC,
and rubber to study the effects of heating methods, moisture con-
tents and size of waste on pyrolysis gas yields and compositions, as
well as heating values [15]. Sorum et al. chose 11 MSW compo-
nents (newspaper, cardboard, recycled paper, glossy paper, spruce,
plastics, HDPE, LDPE, PP, PS, PVC, multi-material, and juice carton)
to study the pyrolysis characteristics [16]. Jiang et al. chose plas-
tics, paper, cloth, wood, rubber, and leaves of vegetables to study
the combustion characteristics of MSW [17]. However, some kinds
of important components may be missed, and some components
may have similar characteristics that extra tests could be saved.
Therefore, typical MSW components should be selected for the
studies.
Proximate and ultimate analyses as well as heating value are
fundamental parameters for incineration, pyrolysis, and gasifica-
tion [18]. Proximate analysis provides the moisture, ash, volatile
and fixed carbon content, which impacts the drying, ignition and
ash disposal process of MSW. Ultimate analysis provides the ele-
mental compositions of fuel, which determines the gas products
of thermal conversion. Heating value is also very important for
the design of incinerators. Thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA) is
one of the most common techniques used to investigate the
thermal behavior of small fuel samples, with no limitations in heat
and mass transfer at low heating rates [19–22]. Obtained results
can be used to determine reactivity, which includes pyrolysis rate
(mass loss per time unit) and mass loss kinetics of the fuels. Mean-
while, the results of TGA can be easily obtained and usually have
very good repeatability.
Traditionally, MSW combustible fractions are divided into six
groups, i.e. food residue, wood waste, paper, textiles, plastics, and
rubber based on physical sources [23]. However, there is no classi-
fication of MSW based on thermochemical characteristics. In this
paper, 26 kinds of municipal solid waste components are selected.
According to the proximate and ultimate analysis and heating
value results, as well as TG characteristics, MSW components were
classified into several groups by cluster analysis method. There-
fore, typical MSW components can be selected for the research of
thermal conversion process.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
26 kinds of MSW components from six groups (food residue,
wood waste, paper, textiles, plastics, and rubber) are selected for
this study. The proximate and ultimate analyses as well as heating
value were carried out by China Coal Research Institute (CCRI) and
The Lab of Thermal Engineering, Tsinghua University. The proxi-
mate analysis is performed referring to GB/T 212. Carbon and
hydrogen content is measured according to GB/T 476; nitrogen
content is measured according to GB/T 19227; and total sulfur con-
tent is measured according to GB/T 214. The oxygen content is cal-
culated as the difference between 100% and the sum of other
elements. The heating value is determined according to GB/T
213. The proximate and ultimate analyses as well as heating value
Table 1
Proximate and ultimate analyses of MSW components.
Groups Samples Proximate analysis (wt%) Ultimate analysis (wt%) HHV (MJ/kg)
Ad
Vd
FCd
Cdaf
Hdaf
Odaf
Ndaf
Sdaf
Food residue Chinese cabbage (CHC) 9.91 67.60 22.49 47.49 5.88 41.79 4.11 0.73 16.99
Rice (RI) 0.40 84.42 15.18 45.97 6.35 45.74 1.69 0.25 18.14
Potato (PO) 3.15 79.52 17.33 44.41 5.33 47.82 1.81 0.64 17.10
Tangerine peel (TP) 2.91 76.49 20.60 48.74 5.92 43.83 1.43 0.08 18.47
Banana peel (BP) 10.85 64.38 24.77 35.80 4.79 54.93 4.37 0.10 16.39
Pakchoi (PA) 18.44 63.97 17.59 43.37 5.93 48.64 1.25 0.81 18.90
Celery (CE) 14.58 65.36 20.06 38.46 6.16 54.52 0.21 0.65 13.57
Orange peel (OP) 2.15 77.93 19.92 40.28 6.12 52.46 1.08 0.06 17.10
Spinach (SP) 15.97 65.26 18.77 47.58 6.48 43.93 1.57 0.43 17.08
Wood waste Poplar wood (PW) 7.54 73.85 18.61 51.36 5.89 41.00 1.52 0.22 18.50
Poplar leaf (PL) 15.69 68.74 15.57 49.54 5.24 43.30 1.32 0.59 16.85
Chinar leaf (CL) 9.23 69.74 21.03 52.95 4.88 40.51 1.01 0.65 19.12
Gingko leaf (GL) 11.62 73.19 15.19 41.35 5.54 50.88 1.36 0.87 15.28
Paper Blank printing paper (BPP) 10.69 79.33 9.98 45.12 5.31 48.91 0.38 0.28 13.51
Tissue paper (TIP) 0.52 90.47 9.01 45.18 6.13 48.32 0.25 0.11 17.25
Newspaper (NE) 8.07 79.54 12.39 48.01 5.71 45.86 0.33 0.09 17.16
Textiles Cotton cloth (CC) 1.52 84.53 13.95 46.51 5.80 46.98 0.43 0.28 17.43
Absorbent cotton gauze (ACG) 0.14 94.85 5.01 46.74 5.69 47.23 0.27 0.08 16.82
Terylene (TE) 0.49 88.60 10.91 62.16 4.14 33.12 0.29 0.28 20.86
Plastics PS 0.04 99.57 0.39 86.06 6.27 1.93 5.73 0.00 38.93
LDPE 0.00 99.98 0.02 85.98 11.20 2.61 0.21 0.00 46.48
HDPE 0.18 99.57 0.25 85.35 12.70 1.90 0.05 0.14 46.36
PVC 0.00 94.93 5.07 38.34 4.47 56.96a
0.23 0.00 20.83
PP 0.02 99.98 0.00 83.51 10.64 5.63 0.22 0.00 45.20
PET 0.09 90.44 9.47 63.01 4.27 32.69 0.04 0.00 23.09
Rubber Rubber (RU) 10.24 62.83 26.93 89.53 6.70 1.07 0.69 2.02 35.74
A: ash; V: volatile; FC: fixed carbon; HHV: high heating value; d: dry basis; daf: dry ash free basis.
a
It is Cl for PVC.
152 H. Zhou et al. / Fuel 145 (2015) 151–157
3. are shown in Table 1. To eliminate the impact of moisture, the
proximate analysis and high heating value (HHV) were expressed
as dry basis (dry at 105 °C). The ultimate analysis results were uni-
fied as dry ash free basis.
2.2. Experimental apparatus
The TGA experiments were performed by a NETZSCH STA 409C/
3/F with a flow rate of 100 ml min1
of N2. Temperature rose from
room temperature to 1000 °C at a heating rate of 10 °C min1
.
Repeated experiments showed that TG curves had good
reproducibility.
Before pyrolysis, the samples were dried at 105 °C to eliminate
the moisture. Powder samples were ground and sieved into parti-
cles with the diameter less than 250 lm; fiber samples were cut to
less than 5 mm, which are small enough to prevent heat transfer
effect in TG experiments.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Proximate and ultimate analyses and heating value
The proximate and ultimate analyses of MSW components are
shown in Fig. 1. According to Fig. 1(a), these samples can be classi-
fied into five groups. The first group includes PS, LDPE, HDPE, and
PP, with almost 100% volatile and no ash or fixed carbon. The same
proximate results of PE, PP, PS, and PVC were also reported by oth-
ers [11,15,16]. The second group includes PVC, absorbent cotton
gauze, PET, tissue paper, terylene, cotton cloth, rice, and potato,
with low ash content and high volatile. Newspaper and blank
printing paper can be classified as a group, with approximate
80% volatile and 10% ash content. Orange peel and tangerine peel
can be classified as a group, with less than 3% ash content and
approximate 20% fixed carbon content. The others, including some
food residue samples, wood waste samples and rubber can be clas-
sified as the last group. The ash content varies from 7% to 19%; the
volatile varies from 63% to 74%; and the fixed carbon content varies
from 15% to 26%. The vegetal sample reported by Li AM et al. has
similar proximate composition [15].
The ternary chart of ultimate analysis results is shown in
Fig. 1(b). The carbon and hydrogen content is combined together;
and the nitrogen, sulfur and chlorine content are combined
together, as reported by Vassilev et al. [24]. The components can
be classified into 4 groups. PVC itself is one group, with 56.96%
chlorine content. LDPE, HDPE, PP, PS, and rubber are a group, with
very high carbon (more than 83%) and hydrogen (more than 6%)
content. Accordingly, the percentages of other elements are quite
low. The same elemental composition of PE and PP was also
reported by others [11,15,16]. Terylene and PET could be classified
as a group, with approximate 62% carbon, 4% hydrogen, 33% oxy-
gen, and a small amount of nitrogen and sulfur (less than 0.3%).
In fact, terylene and PET are different forms of the same chemical
structure. The other components, including food residue, wood
waste, paper, and textiles compose the last group, with 40–60%
C + H, 40–60% O, and less than 5% N + S + Cl. It is a group of biomass
or natural polymer. The newspaper, paperboard, wood-chip, and
cotton cloth reported in other research had similar characteristics
[15,16].
The classification of HHV of MSW components is shown in
Table 2. The HHV of all the samples varies from 10 to 50 MJ kg1
.
PP, HDPE, and LDPE have the highest HHV (more than 40 MJ kg1
).
The HHVs of rubber and PS are also very high (from 30 to
40 MJ kg1
). The HHV of PVC, terylene, and PET locate between
20 and 25 MJ kg1
. For other components, including food residue,
Chinese cabbage
Rice
Potato
Banana peel
Pakchoi
Celery
Orange peel
Poplar wood
Chinar leaf
Tissue paper
Terylene
PS
LDPE
HDPE
PVC
PP
PET
Rubber
Gingko leaf
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Blank printing paper
Newspaper
Absorbent cotton gauze
Cotton cloth
Newspaper
Poplar leaf
Tanerine peel
Spinach
Banana peel
Orange peel
O
N
+
S
+
C
l
C+H
Celery
Chinese cabbage
Rice
Potato
Tangerine peel
Banana peel Pakchoi
Celery
Orange peel
Spinach
Poplar wood
Poplar leaf
Chinar leaf
Blank printing paper
Tissue paper
Newspaper
Cotton cloth
Terylene
PS
LDPE
HDPE
PVC
PP
PET
Rubber
Gingko leaf
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
V
F
C
A
PS, LDPE, HDPE, PP
Absorbent cotton gauze
(b) Ultimate analysis
(a) Proximate analysis
Fig. 1. Chemical compositions of MSW components.
Table 2
Classification of HHV of MSW components.
HHV 40 MJ kg1
HHV
30–40 MJ kg1
HHV 20–30 MJ kg1
HHV
10–20 MJ kg1
PP, HDPE, LDPE Rubber, PS PVC, terylene, PET Blank printing paper, celery, banana peel, absorbent cotton gauze, poplar leaf,
Chinese cabbage, spinach, potato, orange peel, newspaper, tissue paper,
cotton cloth, rice, tangerine peel, poplar wood, pakchoi, chinar leaf
H. Zhou et al. / Fuel 145 (2015) 151–157 153
4. wood waste, paper, and textiles, the HHV is in the range of 10–
20 MJ kg1
. The classification of HHV is similar to the classification
of ultimate analysis, as shown in Fig. 1(b).
3.2. Cluster analysis based on thermogravimetric characteristics
MSW components samples were tested using TGA to obtain the
thermogravimetric characteristics. Based on TG characteristics (TG
curves), the MSW components were classified using cluster analy-
sis method. N sets of data were exported from the TG curve, which
was regarded as a vector X or Y. N denotes the number of mass data
from a TG curve; X and Y denote the data group of mass between
100% and 0%, i.e.
X ¼ ðx1; x2; x3; . . . XNÞ; Y ¼ ðy1; y2; y3; . . . yNÞ ð1Þ
Euclidean distance was introduced to measure the difference
between TG curves quantitatively [25]. Euclidean distance is the
most common distance measure, which means the absolute dis-
tance of spots in multi-dimensional space.
distðX; YÞ ¼
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
X
N
i¼1
ðxi yiÞ2
v
u
u
t ð2Þ
During the cluster analysis process, data from 100 to 1000 °C
were exported from TG curves every 10 °C, which was good
enough to reflect the characteristics of TG characteristics. The
detailed Euclidean distance values between TG curves of different
components are shown in Table 3.
Between-groups linkage was adopted to perform the cluster
analysis. The cluster analysis was performed step by step: similar
samples will be clustered at first, and samples with largest differ-
ence will be clustered at last. All the analyses were performed by
SPSS software. The classification is shown in Fig. 2. The compo-
nents can be classified into 11 groups.
As shown in Fig. 2, four kinds of wood waste (chinar leaf, poplar
leaf, poplar wood, and ginkgo leaf) can be classified into a group.
The derivative thermogravimetric (DTG) curves of these compo-
nents are shown in Fig. 3(a). The main peak of these four compo-
nents is presented at 320–350 °C, and there is a shoulder peak at
Table 3
Detailed Euclidean distance values between TG curves of different components.
Euclidean distance (%) CHC RI PO TP BP PA CE OP SP PW PL CL GL BPP TIP NE CC ACG TE PS LDPE HDPE PVC PP PET RU
CHC
RI 79
PO 97 47
TP 49 61 63
BP 16 71 90 43
PA 46 103 131 92 50
CE 38 84 113 76 37 25
OP 100 81 52 58 98 143 128
SP 22 81 104 65 28 31 27 114
PW 53 52 77 55 49 71 60 92 50
PL 37 69 96 63 35 43 36 110 28 30
CL 44 76 104 71 43 44 42 117 33 33 11
GL 58 62 76 59 58 79 72 85 55 27 41 43
BPP 109 82 94 104 110 123 115 107 104 69 90 90 62
TIP 225 171 156 195 223 251 238 157 227 184 212 214 178 136
NE 137 95 96 120 135 156 146 106 134 93 119 119 86 41 99
CC 191 137 117 160 189 221 206 119 194 157 184 187 149 115 54 84
ACG 285 233 216 253 282 312 300 212 288 244 273 274 238 199 67 160 114
TE 189 181 190 190 190 194 196 194 181 156 166 159 145 149 200 145 199 240
PS 326 291 280 305 325 346 341 276 325 287 309 306 275 255 190 225 217 177 188
LDPE 326 312 308 319 329 336 339 303 321 296 308 303 280 272 264 257 274 278 180 203
HDPE 319 309 309 316 323 326 331 305 314 291 301 296 275 269 274 257 282 293 179 225 35
PVC 232 179 146 197 228 265 251 150 237 202 226 230 190 174 101 143 86 132 216 205 260 272
PP 322 302 297 311 324 335 335 293 318 289 303 299 273 263 241 243 256 249 158 153 73 101 240
PET 226 218 224 225 228 232 235 224 219 195 205 198 182 183 217 175 220 249 42 175 148 151 229 122
RU 112 135 165 136 110 92 100 178 99 94 85 76 104 132 246 155 231 298 143 303 302 293 274 294 182
Chinar leaf
Poplar leaf
Poplar wood
Ginkgo leaf
Celery
Pakchoi
Chinese cabbage
Banana peel
Spinach
Potato
Rice
Tangerine peel
Orange peel
Blank printing paper
Newspaper
Rubber
Tissue paper
Cotton cloth
Absorbent cotton gauze
PVC
Terylene
PET
HDPE
LDPE
PP
PS
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
Fig. 2. Dendrogram of the cluster analysis of MSW components based on TG
characteristics.
154 H. Zhou et al. / Fuel 145 (2015) 151–157
5. approximate 280 °C. Another peak at 700 °C is also identified.
Similar TG characteristics of spruce were also reported [16]. Wood
is composed of hemi-cellulose, cellulose, and lignin. The first peak
(shoulder peak) is derived from the decomposition of hemi-cellu-
lose [26], and the main peak is derived from the decomposition
of cellulose, which is also the main ingredient of wood [27]. The
peak at 700 °C is derived from the decomposition of lignin [19].
Five kinds of food residue components can be classified into a
group, as shown in Fig. 2. Celery, pakchoi, Chinese cabbage, and
spinach are vegetables, and banana peel is fruit peel. This group
has a peak at 295–320 °C, due to the decomposition of hemi-cellu-
lose and cellulose, and one or two shoulder peaks at 200–260 °C,
because the pyrolysis of hemi-cellulose [19].
Potato and rice can be classified as one group. They have only one
peak at approximate 300 °C. In fact, the main composition of potato
and rice is starch [28]. Two fruit peel, tangerine peel and orange peel
can be classified into one group. They have two peaks, as shown in
Fig. 3(d). The first peak is at 210–230 °C, because of the decomposi-
tion of pectin and hemi-cellulose [29]. The second peak is at 331–
333 °C, because of the decomposition of cellulose [30,31]. Similar
results of orange waste pyrolysis were also reported by Lopez-
Velazquez et al. [32]. Blank printing paper and newspaper can be
classified as one group, with the main peak at approximate 350 °C,
because of the decomposition of cellulose, the main composition
of paper [33–35]. Similar characteristics of uncoated printing and
writing paper were also reported by Chang et al. [36]. However,
blank printing paper has a peak at 721.7 °C, because of the decom-
position of CaCO3, which is added to smooth the paper [37,38].
The decomposition of rubber is different from that of other compo-
nents, with the main peak at 378.4 °C. Tissue paper, cotton cloth,
and absorbent cotton gauze can be classified as one group, with a
single peak at 333–353 °C, due to the decomposition of cellulose
[39,40].
PVC is special because of chlorine, as shown in Fig. 1(b). The
pyrolysis of PVC can be divided into two main stages. The first
stage is from 250 to 375 °C with a peak at 286.3 °C, because of
the dehydrochlorination process; the second stage is from 375 to
500 °C, with a peak at 469.7 °C (Fig. 3(h)), because of the decompo-
sition of hydrocarbon residue [12]. The similar result of PVC pyro-
lysis was also reported by Sorum et al. [16]. The chemical structure
of terylene and PET is the same, therefore their TG characteristics
are similar. They have a main peak at approximate 440 °C, with
very high intensity (20% min1
). Similar characteristics of PET
pyrolysis were also reported by other researches [41,42]. It should
be noted that terylene also has a tiny peak at 304.9 °C, maybe
because of the decomposition of impurity. HDPE, LDPE, and PP
have similar TG characteristics. Their pyrolysis process is simple,
with only one peak at 455–485 °C. Particularly, the characteristics
Fig. 3. DTG curves of different categories of MSW components based on thermogravimetric characteristics.
H. Zhou et al. / Fuel 145 (2015) 151–157 155
6. of HDPE and LDPE have little difference, which was also reported
by Sorum et al. [16]. The pyrolysis of PS is different with other plas-
tics, with the single peak at 413.9 °C (Fig. 3(k)), lower temperature
than that of HDPE, LDPE, and PP.
According to the results in Fig. 1, Table 2, and Fig. 2, the classi-
fication of MSW components can be obtained based on proximate
and ultimate composition, heating value, and thermogravimetric
characteristics. It should be noted that Fig. 1 and Table 2 provide
a more general classification, while TG characteristics provide a
more specific classification, which means TG characteristics give
more information about the thermochemical properties of the
components. TG characteristics may act as ‘‘fingerprint’’ to distin-
guish the components.
Since pyrolysis is a more fundamental process of thermal con-
version, the importance of the pyrolytic characteristics of a given
fuel relies not only on the pyrolytic products but also on the fact
that pyrolysis is the first chemical step in gasification or combus-
tion [27,43]. Therefore, Fig. 2 provides a classification for the
lab-scale research of not only pyrolysis, but also incineration and
gasification. Typical samples from the 11 groups in Fig. 2 can be
selected for the research of the thermal conversion of MSW, which
almost covers all the components in real MSW. However, gas prod-
ucts were not considered in this process, therefore more work
should be carried out in the future.
4. Conclusions
Generally, combustible MSW are classified into food residue,
wood waste, paper, textiles, plastics, and rubber six physical groups.
According to the proximate and ultimate analyses and heating value
results, as well as TG characteristics, MSW components are classi-
fied into 11 groups using cluster analysis method. For food residue,
vegetables and banana peel are a group, with multiple peaks below
320 °C; starch food is a group, with single peak at 300 °C; and tan-
gerine peel and orange peel are a group, with less than 3% ash con-
tent and approximate 20% fixed carbon content. Wood waste is a
group, with weak peak of hemi-cellulose, strong peak of cellulose
and another peak of lignin. Printing paper (including blank printing
paper and newspaper) is a group, with approximate 80% volatile and
10% ash content and the main DTG peak at 350 °C. Rubber itself is a
group. Tissue paper, cotton cloth, and absorbent cotton gauze are a
cellulose group. PVC is a group, because of the high chlorine content
and two stages pyrolysis. Terylene and PET are a group, with the
main peak at 440 °C. PE and PP are a group, with a very strong peak
at 455–485 °C, and PS is a group. According to the above classifica-
tion, typical components can be selected for thermal conversion in
waste-to-energy research.
Acknowledgements
The financial support from National Basic Research Program of
China (973 Program, No. 2011CB201502) and National Natural Sci-
ence Foundation of China (No. 21376134) are gratefully
acknowledged.
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