Pedagogical grammar occupies a middle ground between the areas of prescriptive and descriptive grammar. Simply put, prescriptive grammar sets forth rules about how language should be used correctly. It prescribes language the way a doctor prescribes medicine by saying what ought to be done. Descriptive grammar, on the other hand, describes how speakers actually use language without consideration for whether it conforms to "proper" rules.
Since the goal of pedagogical grammar is to help non-native speakers achieve fluency, some of both approaches is necessary. In order for a language learner to speak well, most of his or her utterances will need to conform to the grammatical rules set forth in prescriptive grammar. On the other hand, it helps to understand the way native speakers actually use language; through descriptive grammar. This is necessary for the learner to make sense of slang or other non-standard ways of speaking, such as ending sentences with prepositions.
Discourse analysis (Linguistics Forms and Functions)Satya Permadi
Discourse analysis is an umbrella term for all those studies within applied linguistics which focus on units/stretches of language beyond the sentence level (Judit, 2012). We as the human is use a natural language utterance which language serves in the expression of 'content' described as transactional and that function involved in expressing social relations and personal attitudes we describe as interactional. Spoken and written language has relation each other. But written language and spoken language have different form. The book concerns with sentence which is 'text-sentence‘, so it will connected to behavior and involves contextual considerations. The data which is used in this book is based on the linguistic output of someone other than the analyst. Besides, discourse analyst discovers regularities in his data.
Pedagogical grammar occupies a middle ground between the areas of prescriptive and descriptive grammar. Simply put, prescriptive grammar sets forth rules about how language should be used correctly. It prescribes language the way a doctor prescribes medicine by saying what ought to be done. Descriptive grammar, on the other hand, describes how speakers actually use language without consideration for whether it conforms to "proper" rules.
Since the goal of pedagogical grammar is to help non-native speakers achieve fluency, some of both approaches is necessary. In order for a language learner to speak well, most of his or her utterances will need to conform to the grammatical rules set forth in prescriptive grammar. On the other hand, it helps to understand the way native speakers actually use language; through descriptive grammar. This is necessary for the learner to make sense of slang or other non-standard ways of speaking, such as ending sentences with prepositions.
Discourse analysis (Linguistics Forms and Functions)Satya Permadi
Discourse analysis is an umbrella term for all those studies within applied linguistics which focus on units/stretches of language beyond the sentence level (Judit, 2012). We as the human is use a natural language utterance which language serves in the expression of 'content' described as transactional and that function involved in expressing social relations and personal attitudes we describe as interactional. Spoken and written language has relation each other. But written language and spoken language have different form. The book concerns with sentence which is 'text-sentence‘, so it will connected to behavior and involves contextual considerations. The data which is used in this book is based on the linguistic output of someone other than the analyst. Besides, discourse analyst discovers regularities in his data.
Historical theories of language developmentBabylen Arit
Prescriptive Grammar
Descriptive Linguistics
Behaviorism
Transformational Grammar
Krashen's Monitor Model
Communicative Competence
Discourse Theory
Meaning-Centered vs. Commonsense Approaches
Contributions of Semiotics
Contributions of Research about the Brain
. . . all human languages do share the same structure. More e.docxadkinspaige22
. . . all human languages do share the same structure. More explicitly: they have
essentially the same primitive elements and rules of composition . . . , although
of course there may be variations, such as the obvious ones derived from the
arbitrary association between sounds and meanings . . .
(Moro, 2016, p. 15)
3.1 Introduction
In this chapter, we start to consider individual theoretical perspectives on
L2 learning in greater detail. Our first topic is the Universal Grammar (UG)
approach (the generative linguistics approach), developed by the American
linguist Noam Chomsky and numerous followers over the last few decades.
This has been the most influential linguistic theory in the field, and has
inspired a wealth of publications (for full-length treatments, see Hawkins,
2001; Herschensohn, 2000; Lardiere, 2007; Leung, 2009; Slabakova, 2016;
Snape & Kupisch, 2016; Thomas, 2004; White, 2003; Whong, Gil, & Mars-
den, 2013).
The main aim of linguistic theory is twofold: firstly, to characterize what
human languages are like (descriptive adequacy), and, secondly, to explain
why they are that way (explanatory adequacy). In terms of L2 acquisition,
a linguistic approach sets out to describe the evolving language produced
by L2 learners, and to explain its characteristics. UG is therefore a prop-
erty theory (as defined in Chapter 1); that is, it attempts to characterize
the underlying linguistic knowledge in L2 learners’ minds. In contrast, a
detailed examination of the learning process itself (transition theory) will
be the main concern of the cognitive approaches which we describe in
Chapters 4 and 5.
First in this chapter, we will give a broad definition of the aims of the
Chomskyan tradition in linguistic research, in order to identify the aspects
of second language acquisition (SLA) to which this tradition is most relevant.
Secondly, we will examine the concept of UG itself in some detail, and
finally we will consider its application in L2 learning research.
3 Linguistics and Language
Learning
The Universal Grammar
Approach
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EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 4/6/2020 6:13 AM via UNIVERSITY OF ESSEX
AN: 2006630 ; Mitchell, Rosamond, Myles, Florence, Marsden, Emma.; Second Language Learning Theories : Fourth Edition
Account: s9814295.main.ehost
82 Linguistics and Language Learning
3.2 Why a Universal Grammar?
3.2.1 Aims of Linguistic Research
The main goals of linguistic theory, as defined by Chomsky (1986a), are to
answer three basic questions about human language:
1. What constitutes knowledge of language?
2.
. . . all human languages do share the same structure. More e.docxShiraPrater50
. . . all human languages do share the same structure. More explicitly: they have
essentially the same primitive elements and rules of composition . . . , although
of course there may be variations, such as the obvious ones derived from the
arbitrary association between sounds and meanings . . .
(Moro, 2016, p. 15)
3.1 Introduction
In this chapter, we start to consider individual theoretical perspectives on
L2 learning in greater detail. Our first topic is the Universal Grammar (UG)
approach (the generative linguistics approach), developed by the American
linguist Noam Chomsky and numerous followers over the last few decades.
This has been the most influential linguistic theory in the field, and has
inspired a wealth of publications (for full-length treatments, see Hawkins,
2001; Herschensohn, 2000; Lardiere, 2007; Leung, 2009; Slabakova, 2016;
Snape & Kupisch, 2016; Thomas, 2004; White, 2003; Whong, Gil, & Mars-
den, 2013).
The main aim of linguistic theory is twofold: firstly, to characterize what
human languages are like (descriptive adequacy), and, secondly, to explain
why they are that way (explanatory adequacy). In terms of L2 acquisition,
a linguistic approach sets out to describe the evolving language produced
by L2 learners, and to explain its characteristics. UG is therefore a prop-
erty theory (as defined in Chapter 1); that is, it attempts to characterize
the underlying linguistic knowledge in L2 learners’ minds. In contrast, a
detailed examination of the learning process itself (transition theory) will
be the main concern of the cognitive approaches which we describe in
Chapters 4 and 5.
First in this chapter, we will give a broad definition of the aims of the
Chomskyan tradition in linguistic research, in order to identify the aspects
of second language acquisition (SLA) to which this tradition is most relevant.
Secondly, we will examine the concept of UG itself in some detail, and
finally we will consider its application in L2 learning research.
3 Linguistics and Language
Learning
The Universal Grammar
Approach
C
o
p
y
r
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g
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2
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EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 4/6/2020 6:13 AM via UNIVERSITY OF ESSEX
AN: 2006630 ; Mitchell, Rosamond, Myles, Florence, Marsden, Emma.; Second Language Learning Theories : Fourth Edition
Account: s9814295.main.ehost
82 Linguistics and Language Learning
3.2 Why a Universal Grammar?
3.2.1 Aims of Linguistic Research
The main goals of linguistic theory, as defined by Chomsky (1986a), are to
answer three basic questions about human language:
1. What constitutes knowledge of language?
2 ...
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
2. Introduction: Theorizing about language… While structuralists follow an approach that insists on slow, painstaking data-gathering and analysis, transformationalists observe languages and theorize about the general principles in producing language. This theory is then tested against other observations, the theory is revised where necessary, tested again, and so on. Transformational-generative theory has been revised and recast almost continuously since its statement in Chomsky’s Syntactic Structures in 1957. Its present stage is by no means final. Even its most fundamental premise-that syntactic structure is central to the operation of human language-has been seriously questioned in recent years.
3. Theorizing about language… Nevertheless, the fact remains that the study of language has been unalterably affected by the theory. The hybrid disciplines - psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, and so on- have drawn heavily on generative theory. English teaching and textbooks have been greatly affected. There is a lot to be gained from going back to the beginning to look at how the theory began and what it was like in its earlier stages. First of all, why is it thought necessary to depart from the structuralist method? What questions seemed to have no acceptable answers? What facts had been unexplained?...
4. Theorizing about language… Perhaps the most far-reaching transformationalist challenge concerned the effectiveness of immediate constituent analysis. While IC analysis was capable of demonstrating some of the relationships in English sentence patterns, it provided no basis for analysis of the differences between sentences where the patterns were the same but the relationships different. Transformationalists pointed to sentences like: Gama is easy to please. Gama is eager to please. And insisted that some means should be found to point up the very real difference in the sentences- in the first sentence, others could please Gama; in the second, Gama sought to please others.
5. Importance of a Syntactic System… Children who are still in diapers begin to verbalize. They point to things and repeat words adults say to them: “mama-doggy- cup.” Incredibly soon they are able to think in abstract terms. A 2 year old’s mother may say to him : “That’s a no-no” and the child knows that she is not giving a name to an object. She means “That may hurt you; it may break; I may punish you for touching it,” or any combination of these. There is evidence to support the idea that a system of syntactic operations is the foundation stone of natural languages. Most obvious is the ability of children to acquire a working knowledge of the grammatical system of their language at a very early age.
6. Importance of a Syntactic System… Soon other evidence of the child’s ability to grasp his language tools and use them becomes apparent. The child’s father says, “go ask your mother where she put the hammer.” the child goes to his mother and says, “daddy wants the hammer.” The child has created a sentence- one that he probably has never heard before, but one that adheres to the rules of his language- in spite of the fact that no one has ever mentioned to him that the language has rules, let alone what those rules are.
7. Importance of a Syntactic System… A child may be said to perform 2 language- learning operations. While he is learning differences in meaning (that is, some small furry animals are dogs, some are cats, others are squirrels, and so on), he is also learning to put words together in grammatical patterns (that is, the top of my head, not *my head top; fire burns, not *fire of burn, and so on). He learns, in short, both semantic definition and grammatical rule.
8. Importance of a Syntactic System… Transformationalists believe that the language-acquiring ability of the human mind is an innate, genetically carried attribute that is possessed by no other creature. Children –even those with very low IQs- manage to acquire language in a remarkably short time. No animal has ever acquired true language even though some have been given years of painstaking training, drill, and the concentrated efforts of battalions of experts.
9. Summary... Transformationalists who saw a need for an overall theory of syntax hoped to meet these challenges: They proposed to describe the syntactic system shared by speakers of a natural language – English. They insisted on absolute precision of description. They insisted on simplicity of description. The ultimate goal of the grammar would be to account for the syntactic structure of all of the sentences possible in English.
10. Summary... Transformationalists contend that the syntactic system they wish to describe is not only important, but, in fact, central to the operation of human language. In support to this belief, they point to these facts: Speakers of English are endlessly creative in using their language; they deal with new and unique sentences daily with very little difficulty. Children acquire this enormously complex system very quickly, at a very early age, and without specific instruction. ( http://www.5min.com/Video/The-Stages-of-Language-Development-in-Children-326728812 ) All evidence points to the fact that the ability to acquire true language is a uniquely human attribute.
11. The Original Theory In its initial stages transformational-generative grammar began to describe the syntactic system of English by a method derived in part from mathematics and symbolic logic. The 1st step was to assign symbols to abstract grammatical categories. A series of phrase structure rules was formulated to show how all the categories fit together to form the syntactic patterns of English. A 2nd set of rules, the transformational rules, ordered possible changes, combinations, and rearrangements of the basic sentence patterns creating other phrase and sentence patterns. A 3rd set of rules, the morphophonemic rules, was required to give basic sentences and transformations their spoken language form. These 3 sets of rules were the 3 components of the original transformational-generative grammar of English.
12. Component 1: The Phrase Structure Rules The 1st component of a transformational-generative grammar was concerned with the phrase structure. These began with the concept that the sentence is the basis of the syntactic system shared by speakers of English, or any other language for that matter. The simple, declarative, affirmative, indicative sentences were given the name kernel sentences.
13. Component 1: The Phrase Structure Rules The symbols assigned to these and other abstract grammatical categories were, for the most part, abbreviations for traditional or structural terminology.
14. Component 1: The Phrase Structure Rules Putting some of the rules together and some of the small diagrams together will produce some of the sentence patterns and describe the relationships among categories in each combination. The symbols derived from each combination are brought down to form a string of symbols. These tree diagrams are also called phrase markers. Arranging these symbols in a series of phrase structure rules involves the use of a small arrow, , called a rewrite arrow. A small sample of the PS rules for English: S NP + VP Rules can be turned into a simple diagram:
15. Summary of Component 1: The Phrase Structure Rules This description of the deep structure of basic English sentences has these main points:
16. Component 2: The Transformational Rules Ex: The rule needed to deal with the tense morphemes and verb forms is a transformational rule.
17. Some other transformations…Component 2: The Transformational Rules Among the other optional transformational rules that might be applied to the terminal string are those that would result in the derived sentences below. The kernel sentence is: This dog chased the cat.
18. Combining sentences…Component 2: The Transformational Rules Transformation did not end with turning kernel sentences into other types of simple sentences. Some transformations simply turned sentences into other structures. Some examples of these were nominalization transformations that could transform kernel sentences into a number of different types of noun phrases:
19. Component 3: The Morphophonemic Rules These and similar rules would incorporate the past tense morphemes and the past participle morphemes into the verb forms and give us representations of the segmental phonemic construction of the sentences. The cat cough past /de kaetkcft/ The boy dream past / de boy driymd/ Rules that would translate the spoken sentences into written forms including both Standard English spelling and punctuation would produce: The cat coughed. The boy dreamed. These rules were lumped together and referred to as morphophonemic rules. Both the phrase structure rules and the transformational rules dealt with syntactic structures. Working through them produced terminal strings like: The cat cough past This boy dream past Morphophonemic rules are needed to put these strings of elements into the forms of spoken English. Some rules might be: Cough + past /kcft/ Dream + past / driymd/
20. Some problems for the theory to solve… Grammaticality The notion of grammaticality and the associate idea that “all and only” the sentences of the language described should be generated by the rules of the grammar created a number of questions: What is a grammatical sentence?, Who decides?, According to what criteria?... some felt that the ghost of traditional prescriptive grammar has reappeared thinly disguised by symbols, tree diagrams, and mathematical equations. Dialect Differences The real storm of protest arose over dialect variations in English. Some American speakers say: He doesn’t have a hat. Other American speakers say: He ain’t got no hat. How could the rules be made to include “all and only” the sentences of English without making some value judgments and arbitrary decisions about dialect and usage?