The document discusses nutrition needs during infancy and childhood. It notes that breast milk is the ideal nutrient source for infants in the first 6 months, providing all necessary nutrients for growth. After 6 months, solid foods should be introduced while continuing breastfeeding. Nutrition needs continue to support growth throughout childhood, with requirements for energy, protein, vitamins and minerals increasing with age. Maintaining a balanced diet and healthy lifestyle is important for preventing issues like obesity, allergies and malnutrition during these critical life stages.
Figure 10-9 Weight Gain of Human Infants in Their First Five Years of Life
Table 11-1 Infant and Adult Heart Rate, Respiration Rate, and Energy Needs Compared
Answer: Conditions that cause rapid fluid loss, such as vomiting or diarrhea.
Answer: Oligosaccharides help protect the infant from infection by preventing the binding of pathogens to the infant’s intestinal cells.
Figure 11-3 Percentages of Energy-Yielding Nutrients in Breast Milk and in Recommended Adult Diets
The proportions of energy-yielding nutrients in human breast milk differ from those recommended for adults.
Note: The values listed for adults represent approximate midpoints of the acceptable ranges for protein (10 to 35 percent), fat (20 to 35 percent), and carbohydrate (45 to 65 percent).
Answer: The concentration of vitamin D in breast milk is low. Thus, vitamin D deficiency is most likely in infants who are not exposed to sunlight daily, have darkly pigmented skin, and receive breast milk without vitamin D supplementation. (Recall that the body synthesizes vitamin D from a cholesterol-related compound in the skin when it is exposed to sunlight, and that greater skin pigmentation requires greater levels of sun exposure for synthesis.)
Table 11-2 Supplements for Full-Term Breastfed Infants
aVitamin D supplements are recommended for all infants who are exclusively breastfed and for any infants who do not receive at least 1 liter (1000 milliliters) or 1 quart (32 ounces) of vitamin D–fortified formula per day.
bAt four months of age, 1 mg per kg body weight per day of supplemental iron is recommended for all infants who are exclusively breastfed and for all infants who are receiving more than one-half of their daily feedings as breast milk and no iron-containing complementary foods. Once iron-containing foods are introduced, iron supplements may not be needed.
cAt six months of age, breastfed infants and formula-fed infants who receive ready-to-use formulas (these are made with water low in fluoride) or formula mixed with water that contains little or no fluoride (less than 0.3 ppm) may need supplements, but this
depends on the health care provider’s assessment of the infant’s fluoride exposure.
Answer: More research is needed to confirm these other benefits, but it may offer protection against cardiovascular disease and/or excessive weight gain, as well as improved intelligence.
Figure 11-4 Percentages of Energy-Yielding Nutrients in Breast Milk, Infant Formula, and Cow’s Milk
The average proportions of energy-yielding nutrients in human breast milk and formula differ slightly. In contrast, cow’s milk provides too much protein and too little carbohydrate.
Answer: Formula lacks the antibodies found in breast milk, though in developed countries infants are protected by vaccinations, purified water, and clean environments. Risks include contamination of formula by lead or infectious agents via the water used to prepare formula, and overdilution with water in an attempt to save money.
Table 11-4 Infant Development and Recommended Foods
Table 11-3 Infant Development and Recommended Foods (cont’d.)
Answer: Introduce single-ingredient foods, one at a time, in small portions; wait 3 to 5 days between introducing new foods to allow time to recognize allergy symptoms.
Answer: A 1-year-old should consume 2 to 3 cups/day of reduced-/low-fat milk (but not more) and a variety of solid foods such that energy needs are met but not exceeded. The child should eat many of the same foods as older family members and drink liquids from a cup.
Table 11-6 Sample Menu for a 1-Year-Old
Figure 11-7 Body Shape of a One-Year-Old and a Two-Year-Old Compared
The body shape of a one-year-old (left) changes dramatically by age two (right). The two-year-old has lost much of the baby fat; the muscles (especially in the back, buttocks, and legs) have firmed and strengthened; and the leg bones have lengthened.
Table 11-8 USDA Food Patterns: Recommended Daily Amounts for Each Food Group (1000 to 1800 kCalories)
Figure 11-8 MyPlate Resources for Children
Abundant MyPlate resources for preschool children and older children can be found at www.choosemyplate.gov/.
Answer: Many U.S. children do not eat the types and amounts of foods recommended to promote normal growth and development and reduce their chronic disease risks. Children consume too much solid fats and added sugars but not enough fruits, vegetables, whole grains, or milk/milk products.
Answer: Malnourished children absorb more lead if they have an empty stomach; a low calcium, zinc, vitamin C, or vitamin D intake; or an iron deficiency.
Answer: Adverse reactions to foods or food additives that are not allergies involve symptoms but not the immune system; they don’t trigger production of antibodies like allergies do.
Answer: Children are categorized as overweight when above the 85th percentile for BMI-for-age, obese when at or above the 95th percentile, and severely obese when at or above the 99th percentile. Older adolescents with a BMI >30 are categorized as obese even if not at or above the 95th percentile.
Table 11-11 Recommended Eating and Physical Activity Behaviors to Prevent Obesity
Table 11-11 Recommended Eating and Physical Activity Behaviors to Prevent Obesity (cont’d.)
Answer: Percentage of body fat increases in females; lean body mass (principally muscle and bone) increases much more in males.