This document provides an overview of psychology as a science and discusses various ways of knowing, including empirical and non-empirical methods. It describes science as empirical, objective, self-correcting, and tentative/progressive. Nonempirical ways of knowing like authority, logic, and common sense are discussed alongside their limitations, contrasting them with the empirical scientific method which relies on objective evidence over intuition.

1. Chapter 1
Psychology as a Science

2. What is Science?
 Science = a process or method for generating a
body of knowledge.
 A logic of inquiry… a way of knowing… a problem-
solving activity.
 Science relies on objective and empirical facts.
 Goals of science include:
 Description and discovery or regularities.
 Development of theories that explain facts and laws.

3. Ways of knowing about behavior
 Psychology – What are we studying?
 The science of human (and animal)
behavior…
 So, how do we learn about behavior?
 There different ways to approach the
study of human behavior, and these
methods are the basis of psychological
research.

4. Ways of Knowing
 Nonempirical Methods:
 Nonempirical = not based on experience or
observation.
 Authority –
 A respected person tells us about a phenomenon and
we believe it to be true.
 (e.g.) Our parents tell us that if we don’t wear socks, we’ll get
a cold.
 (e.g.) The U.S. government tells us that Neil Armstrong
walked on the moon.

5. Ways of Knowing
 Nonempirical Methods, cont.:
 Problems with Authority –
 Authorities can be wrong.
 The history of science shows a struggle
between intellectual freedom and dogmas of
authority.
 (e.g.) Galileo correctly thought that the earth
moves around the sun, but his contemporaries
rejected his findings.

6. Ways of Knowing
 Nonempirical Methods, cont.:
 Logic –
1. All humans are mortal.
2. John is human.
3. Therefore, John is mortal.
 These statements are logical in that if the first two
are true, the third follows logically.
 This statement is logical and true, but just because
a statement follows logically doesn’t always make it
a true statement.

7. Ways of Knowing
 Nonempirical Methods, cont.:
 Problems with Logic –
 The truth of this logical series of statements depends on the
accuracy or truthfulness of the very first statement.
 Logical statements can be true but don’t have to be.
 Consider this statement:
 All college professors are nerds.
 Kristen Rost is a college professor.
 Therefore, Kristen Rost is a nerd.
 Logic is no substitute for empirical evidence.
 You can logically conclude I am a nerd based on this
statement. But to truly know if I’m a nerd, you’ll have to
observe me over the course of the semester…

8. Ways of Knowing
 Empirical Methods:
 Empirical = based on experience or
observation.
 Empirical methods of knowing are either:
1. Intuitive
2. Scientific

9. Ways of Knowing
 Empirical Methods, cont.:
 Intuition –
 Spontaneous, instinctive perception that does not
based on reason.
 We use intuition to make decisions all the time.
 (e.g.) You see an angry man in the subway, you intuitively
know to stay away.
 How is intuition empirical (how is it based in
experience)?

10. Ways of Knowing
 Empirical Methods, cont.:
 Common Sense -
 A more practical kind of intuition; ability to
agree with a large group of people.
 (e.g.) It is common sense in Western societies
that you show respect for someone by looking
him/her straight in the eye.
 How is intuition empirical (how is it based in
experience)?

11. Ways of Knowing
 Empirical Methods, cont.:
 Problems with Common Sense –
 Common sense methods/ideas change
across times and places.
 (e.g.) It used to be common sense in Christianity
that “true believers” must go to church on
Sundays. Nowadays, common sense tells us that
you don't have to go to church every Sunday to
be a “true believer”.

12. Ways of Knowing
 Empirical Methods, cont.:
 Problems with Common Sense –
 Common sense is pragmatic, but no attempt is
made to verify if the common belief is in fact true.
 Any instance of success based on common sense
is seen as proof of it.
 As long as a certain practice works, the practice is
maintained and the theory behind it is considered
true.
 But, just because a practice is common sense and
works, does not help us predict when it will work
and when it won’t.
 (e.g.) Having a common sense idea of how to treat children does not tell
you how to treat children with certain developmental disabilities, such as
Autism.

13. Ways of Knowing
 Empirical Methods, cont.:
 Scientific knowledge and findings often
oppose common sense notions, and are
counterintuitive.
 Example:
 Intuition: obese people always tend to eat more.
 Scientific Results: the amount of food consumed
by obese people tends to depend on external
cues (such as availability of food).
 If considerable effort is involved in obtaining food,
obese people are less likely than normal weight
people to obtain and eat the food.

14. Ways of Knowing
 Empirical Methods, cont.:
 Another Example:
 Common Sense: the more people who witness
an emergency situation, the more likely the
person in crisis will receive help.
 Scientific Results: research has shown that as
the number of bystanders increases, the fewer
offers of help are made (Bystander effect).

15. Science: Another Way of Knowing
 In science, we do not reject other ways of
knowing.
 Scientists are human and are influenced by their
beliefs, authority, logic, and common sense.
 What makes scientists different is their
willingness to change those beliefs based on
objectively obtained empirical evidence.

16. Science: Another Way of Knowing
 Example:
 Authority in science…
 Scientific conferences are forums where
undergraduates, graduate students, or new PhDs can
present research that may challenge the theories of
very established scientists.
 If the challenger presents a sound argument and
acceptable research methods, other scientists will be
motivated to repeat their observations.
 If replication is successful, the established scientist’s
ideas are replaced by the challenger’s.

17. Science: Another Way of Knowing
 There is NOT just one scientific method…
Define the Problem
 This is a basic research
process that is greatly
Formulate hypothesis simplified.
Design the study
 Research is sometimes
conducted in this way,
Collect data but often involves
modification of these steps.
Analyze the data
Report the findings

18. Science: Another Way of Knowing
 Which method is best suited for a given
problem often depends on the discipline
you work in.
 Can you think of a field in which scientists
can only observe and describe their
subject matter?
 Astronomers are limited to observation and
description, they cannot manipulate their
subject matter.

19. Characteristics of Science
 Science has several important characteristics
that make it different than the other ways of
knowing.
 Science is Empirical:
 In science, we rely on experience more than authority,
common sense, or logic.
 The best way to understand behavior is to generate
predictions based on theory, gather data, and use
data to test predictions.
 Are all empirical ways of knowing scientific?
 No, intuition is not.

20. Characteristics of Science
 Science is Objective:
 Science is a way of obtaining knowledge based on objective
observations.
 Objective observations are made in a way that any person with
normal perception, being in the same place at the same time,
would arrive at the same observation.
 Objective observations are carefully reported, so others can
replicate the procedures and see if they observe the same thing.
 Ann says: “I taste salt” - subjective or objective statement?
 Non-scientist: “Ann tasted salt” - subjective or objective statement?
 Scientist: “Ann reported tasting salt” - subjective or objective
statement?

21. Characteristics of Science
 Science is Self-Correcting:
 New evidence is constantly being
discovered that contradicts previous
knowledge.
 Example:
 Scientists in the early 20th century believed that
the environment and education primarily
determined the behaviors and personality of
children once they become adults.
 Newer research has shown that genetics do play
a much bigger role than expected.

22. Characteristics of Science
 Science is Tentative & Progressive:
 Scientists don’t assume that they have found the
absolute truth.
 New knowledge may make current knowledge
obsolete at any time.
 Science is progressive. The amount and quality of
scientific knowledge continues to advance over
time.
 Fashions in clothes – change, but do not necessarily
progress.
 Same with the arts - literature, music, painting – these
change over time, but changed for the better is a matter of
taste.
 Science actually does progress, previous ideas are
replaced with more accurate ones that are based on
further research.

23. Characteristics of Science
 Science is Parsimonious:
 The simplest explanation is usually the best.
 Scientists explore simple explanations of
phenomena before considering more
complex explanations.
 The principle of parsimony was advocated
by William of Occam, a philosopher of the
14th century (“Occam’s Razor).

24. Characteristics of Science
 Science is concerned with Theory:
 A major concern of science is the
development of theories that explain not
only how, but also why things work.
 Scientists seek to find cause-effect
relationships.

25. Assumptions of Science
1) The reality of the world:
 Scientists assume the world to be ‘real’.
 A belief that all objects don’t just exist as we
perceive them as humans, but exist aside from our
perceptions (outside of our minds).
 Philosophers refer to this assumption as the
doctrine or realism.
 Generally, scientists do not debate the reality of the
world. They assume the world is there and study it
the best they can.
 Scientists avoid naïve or commonsense realism
(things are just the way they seem).
 Why is someone lazy?

26. Assumptions of Science
2) Rationality:
 Scientists assume that rationality
(reasoning) is fundamental to effective
problem solving.
 If the world were irrational and could not be
understood using principles of logic… we
would not even bother studying and trying to
understand it!

27. Assumptions of Science
3) Regularity:
 Regularity means that we assume that the
world follows the same laws at all times in all
places.
 Phenomena reoccur because of universal
laws.
 Science assumes that human behavior falls
within the laws of nature.

28. Assumptions of Science
4) Discoverability:
 Assumption that the orderliness of behavior
can be experienced, examined, and
discovered.
 Science views the world as a puzzle that
can be solved by human means.
 But, that doesn’t mean solving the puzzle is
easy… Scientists can spend a lifetime
conducting experimental work.
 (e.g.) B.F. Skinner

29. Assumptions of Science
5) Causality:
 The idea that every event has a cause.
 Determinism:
 The doctrine that all events happen because of
preceding causes.
 Assumption that behavior is orderly and
systematic, does not just happen by chance.
 Probabilistic causes –
 When a relationship between two variables is
less than constant, but causality is still present.
 (e.g.) smoking and lung cancer

30. Assumptions of Science
 The assumptions of science need only be
methodological, not assertions of ultimate truth.
 People are scientists when they are doing
science, and to do so, must make the previous
assumptions.
 Scientists must operate under the assumptions
in the laboratory or when writing about science.
 At home, some scientists may believe in
miracles or view human behavior as irrational at
times.

31. Goals of Science
 Description of Behavior:
 What are we looking at?
 The accurate portrayal or depiction of a phenomenon.
 Scientists need description of phenomena to define the subject
matter clearly as a basis for the development of laws and
theories.
 Example:
 In biology, scientists had to describe many different types of animals
within a species before they could be grouped into one species and
common characteristics be determined.
 In psychology, we must describe behavior very carefully.
 Aggressive cat example… killing mice, fighting with other cats… are
these both in the same class of behavior? Are they both “aggressive
behavior”?

32. Goals of Science
 Discovery of lawful relationships among aspects
of behavior:
 Laws are regularities among behavioral events.
 A law states that certain events are associated with
each other in an orderly way.
 Behavioral events can be related lawfully, even if that
relation is not a perfect or cause-effect one.
 Example:
 Cats raise their fur and arch their backs when about to fight,
but those responses don’t cause the fight.
 The responses are merely correlated with fighting behavior.

33. Goals of Science
 Determination of Cause & Effect relationships :
 This is a crucial aspect of science!
 Example:
 A physician named Paul Broca analyzed the cause of
expressive aphasia (inability to speak) in stroke patients by
conducting autopsies on their brains after their deaths.
 He found that all patients who showed damage in a small
area in the frontal cortex showed expressive aphasia –
unable to speak (this area is now called Broca’s area).

34. Goals of Science
 Determination of Cause & Effect relationships,
cont:
 Discovering the cause of an event is not often
an easy task.
 Remember:
1. Sometimes events just happen to coincide, and are
not causes of each other.
2. Causes cannot happen after their effects.
3. Sometimes the real cause is another event
correlated with the suspected cause.

35. Goals of Science
 Determination of Cause & Effect relationships,
cont:
 Example:
 John’s father hears that boys who wear longer
pants tend to have larger vocabularies.
 John’s father suggests his son should wear longer
pants.
 It’s not the pants that make the larger vocabularies
though, but the age difference that goes with longer
or shorter pants.

36. Goals of Science
 Development of Theories:
 The ultimate goal of science is the
development of a theory to explain the lawful
relationships that exist in a particular field.
 Laws: A single relationship among variables.
 Theories: Statements explaining
relationships among variables (a number of
laws tied together).

37. Theory
 Theory = a set of interrelated constructs
(concepts), definitions, and propositions that
present a systematic view of a phenomenon
by specifying relations among variables, with
the purpose of explaining and predicting the
phenomenon.
… basically… the
organization of concepts
that permit
prediction of data.

38. Good theories are…
 Parsimonious:
 The simplest explanation is the best, explain a lot in as
simple a way as possible.
 Precise:
 A theory should be specific and accurate in wording and
conceptual statements so that its propositions and
predictions are clear.
 Falsifiable:
 The propositions presented in a theory must be
verifiable by some sort of experimentation.
…NOT proven…theories are NEVER proven, but are supported
or not supported by data.

39. Good theories are…
 Useful:
 A theory should be practical and help
describe, explain, and predict important
phenomenon.
 Generative:
 Theory should stimulate research that
attempts to support or refute its propositions.

40. Hypotheses in Science
 How do we develop laws and theories?
 Hypothesis:
 A statement that is assumed to be true for the
purpose of testing its validity.
 Hypotheses can be only true or false and
must be empirically testable:
 If certain observations occur under particular
conditions, and a given theory is correct, we
should find the following outcomes.

41. Defining Theoretical Concepts
 Operationism:
 Scientific concepts have to be defined in
terms of observational operations.
 If there is no way of defining a concept
according to observable operations, the
concept is barred from science.
 Example:
 Psychic ability –
 No operations exist that increase or decrease the
probability of psychic ability.

42. Defining Theoretical Concepts
 Operational definition:
 A statement of the precise meaning of a procedure or
concept within an experiment.
 Defining a variable in terms of the operations required
to measure it
 How could we operationally define:
 “arriving late”
 “showing aggression”
 “happy”
 “sad”

43. Psychology as a Science
 We might feel like “amateur psychologists” as a result of
observing human and animal behavior in our lives.
 In a chemistry class, you probably wouldn’t feel like and
“amateur chemist” because you have not observed
atoms and molecules in your lifetime.
 Our experiences with people may make it difficult to think
about human behavior scientifically.
 But, behavior can be studied using scientific methods.
 Psychology is scientific because formal, systematic
observation is used to answer questions about behavior.