The document outlines the relationship between science and common sense, highlighting how science systemically extends common understanding through controlled methodologies, such as hypothesis testing and observation. It discusses four methods of knowing—tenacity, authority, science, and intuition—and emphasizes the importance of objectivity in scientific research. Additionally, it explores different views of science, contrasting static and dynamic perspectives, and addresses the functions of science in making discoveries and establishing laws while acknowledging the influence of social and historical factors on scientific understanding.

1. Chapter 1
Science And The Scientific Approach
Name- W.K.H Sandamini

2. Outline
• Science and common sense
• Four methods of knowing
• Science and it’s functions
• The aims of science, scientific explanation
• Scientific research: A definition
• The scientific approach
• Problem- Obstacle-idea
• Hypothesis
• Reasoning- Deduction
• Observation-Test-Experiment

3. Science and Common Sense
Science Common sense
Relationship - Science is the systematic and the controlled
extension of the common sense.
Feature Science Common sense
Conceptual schemes and theoretical
functions
Scientists use them Laypersons may also use them but
does so in loose fashion accepting
fanciful explanations of natural and
human phenomenon.
Theories and hypotheses Scientists test them systematically
and empirically
Non scientists also test them but in a
selective fashion
Notion of control Scientists tries to systematically rule
out variables that are possible causes
of the effects
Laypeople seldomly control their
explanations of observed phenomena
systematically.
Preoccupation with relationship Scientists consciously and
systematically pursues relationships
Layperson’s preoccupation with
relationships is loose, unsystematic
and uncontrolled.
Difference explanations of observed
phenomena
Carefully rules out “metaphysical
explanation”
Laypeople are much more concerned
with “metaphysical explanation”

4. Four Methods of Knowing
• Self correcting
approach. Predict
things and make them
available for others to
test.
• People’s natural
inclination towards
truth. Mainly stands
with agreeing with
reason
• Method of
established belief. If
a distinguish person
says something is
true, it is so.
• People hold firmly to
the truth. Because
they have always
known it to be true.
Eg- Our country has
taken independence
on Feb.4th Method
of
tenacity
Method
of
authority
Method
of
science
Method of
intuition
(The a priori
method)

5. Objectivity and Theory
What is objectivity?
• As Pierce said scientific research are more possible and may be
impossible being bound to scientist’s personal beliefs, perceptions,
biases, values, attitudes and emotions. This is called Objectivity.
• Objectivity is actually like an agreement among expert judges on,
I. what is observed or
II. what is to be done or
III. what has been done in a research
• A theory helps a scientist to gain greater objectivity.
• A theory comes from people or scientists themselves.
• As Polanyi points out a theory is “something other than my self”.

6. Science and Its Functions
1. White coat- stethoscope-laboratory stereotype- The
perception that scientists are serious people who work at
laboratories working with complicated equipment and do
innumerable experiments.
2. Scientists are brilliant individuals who think, spin complex
theories and spend their time in ivory towers aloof from the
world and its problems.
3. This stereotype erroneously equates science with
engineering and technology . Eg- Building bridges. Scientist’s
job is improvements of artifacts and inventions. Scientist is a
sort of highly skilled engineer.

7. Science and Its Functions
• Two broad views of science.
1. Static view- The view that affects most of the laypeople and
students. Scientist’s job is to discover innovative things and
adding them to the existing available body of information.
This is like adding new pages to a book. Considered with
present state of knowledge and adding to it on the present
set of laws, theories, hypotheses and principles.
2. Dynamic view- Regards science more as an activity. What
scientists do. This is more concerned with heuristic view
which means present state of knowledge is the base for
further theory and research.

8. Functions of Science
Two distinct views
The non scientists think that science is a discipline or activity of
improving things.
Functions of science- To make discoveries, to learn facts, to advance
knowledge to improve things
Braithwaite’s view-
Functions of science- To establish general laws on the empirical events
or objects with which science in question is concerned . This may help
us to connect together our knowledge and make reliable predictions of
yet unknown events

9. Sampson’s Two Opposing Views of Science
Conventional/Traditional Perspective Nontraditional /Socio historical
Perspective
Presents nature without bias or distortion.
Goal- To describe with the highest degree
of accuracy. How the world really looks
like.
Sees science as a story. Reality can only
be discovered by stories that can be told
about it.
No bias point is needed to grasp the
reality.
Need a stand point to discover the reality.
Science is designed to reflect things like a
mirror.
Science gives different accounts of
personality and versions of reality.
Scientist is considered as a story teller.
Methodological considerations may
sometimes would weaken the researcher's
ability to discover the absolute theory.
Social and historical factors affect
researcher's understanding of reality.