Exploratory research is useful when researchers lack clarity on problems and objectives. It allows researchers to develop clearer concepts, establish priorities, define operations, and improve research design. The primary goal is to gain insights and understanding of the problem. Information needs are loosely defined and the process is flexible. Descriptive research assumes prior knowledge of the problem situation. The goals are to describe characteristics or functions, with clearly defined information needs and a pre-planned, structured design. Survey research encompasses any measurement using questions, from short forms to in-depth interviews. Diagnostic research aims to describe characteristics or frequencies of groups, with a rigid design similar to surveys to describe, analyze, interpret, and suggest remedies. Experimental research tests hypotheses through replication,

1. Exploratory Research Design
EExploration is particularly useful when researches lack a clear idea of the problems they will meet during the study.
EThrough exploration the researchers develop concepts more clearly, establish priorities, develop operational definitions, and improve the final
research design.
r Exploration may also save time and money.
EThe primary objective is to provide insights into, and an understanding of, the problem confronting the researcher.
TThe information needed is only loosely defined at this stage and the research process that is adopted is flexible and unstructured.
TThe primary data and information are qualitative in nature and are analyzed accordingly.
TFollowed by further exploratory or conclusive research.
Descriptive Research Design
DMajor objective is to describe some thing usually market characteristics or functions.
M Descriptive research assumes that the researcher has much prior knowledge about the problem situation. In fact, a major difference between
exploratory and descriptive research is that descriptive research is characterized by prior formulation of specific hypotheses. Thus the information
needed is clearly defined. As a result, descriptive research is pre planned and structured.
nDescriptive research in contrast to exploratory research is marked by a clear statement of the problem, specific hypotheses, and detailed
information needs.
i A descriptive design requires a clear specification of the who, what, when, where, why, and way (the six Ws) of the research.
Survey Research Design
Survey research is one of the most important areas of measurement in applied social research. The broad area of survey research encompasses
any measurement procedures that involve asking questions of respondents. A "survey" can be anything form of a short paper-and-pencil feedback
form to an intensive one-on-one in-depth interview.
Diagnostic Research Design
1. Describing the characteristics of a particular individual or group
2. Determining frequency with which something occurs or its association with something else
3. Rigid design
4. Approximately same as survey design
5. Fact finding in nature; describes, analyses & interprets prevailing situation; suggests remedial measures or alternative course of action for future
Experiment Research Design
EBasic design of logical proof to test hypothesis with three basic principles:
o Replication ‐Repeated several times
o Randomization ‐protects extraneous factors of chance
o Local control ‐Deliberate wide variability to measure & eliminate error
DHelps finding causal relationship between variables
HEmploys a set of control & experimental groups
EAdministers treatment / stimuli
AControlled observation of change / deviation in variables (adequate control is the essence ⇒reduces bias increases reliability)
r Types:
o Lab experiments
o Field experiments ‐A real life situation
Sampling
Selection of some part of an aggregate or totality on the basis of which a judgment or inference (statistical) about the aggregate or totality is made
Study of relation between a population samples drawn from the population. Estimating properties of population from those of samples and gauging
the precision of the estimate, i.e., Statistical induction or statistical inference
Sampling Design or Strategy
1. A definite plan for obtaining sample from a given population
2. Refers to technique or procedure for selecting items for sample including the size of sample
3. It should be reliable & appropriate to research study and determined before data are collected
4. Important aspects / steps in sampling design:
• Define population; decide census v/s sample; prepare sampling frame; decide probable or non probable sampling; note precision is
affected by variability of parameter, size of sample and choice of design method; trade off of cost and practical considerations to
maximize precision; think of pattern of population, sample & response sample; anonymous responses; unit and item nonresponses;
weighing the sample estimates to correct the non response bias; possible bias; selection bias cannot be reduced by increasing sample
size.
• Type of population / universe
o ostructure, composition & finite or infinite nature
• Sampling unit
o Individual, group, family, institution, village, district, etc. Natural (e.g., Geographical) or constructed (e.g. Social entity)
• Sampling frame / source list
o Representative, comprehensive, correct, reliable& appropriate
o Ready to use or constructed for the purpose
• Population parameters of specific interest
o Important sub‐groups in the population (Illustration)
• Budgetary constraints
o Non‐probability sample is cheaper

2. • Size of sample
o Adequate to provide an estimate with sufficiently high precision
o Representative to mirror the various patterns and sub‐classes of the population
o Neither too large nor too small, but optimum to meet efficiency, cost ,reliability (precision) & flexibility
o Higher the precision & larger the variance, the larger the size and more the cost.
• Types of sample or sampling procedure
• For a given size, cost & precision, choose the one which has a smaller sampling error
OBSERVATION
Meaning and Importance
Observation means viewing or seeing. We go on observing some thing or other while we are awake. Most of such observations are just casual and
have no specific purpose. But observation as a method of data collection is different from such casual viewing.
Observation may be defined as a systematic viewing of a specific phenomenon in its proper setting or the specific purpose of gathering data for a
particular study. Observation as a method includes both 'seeing' and 'hearing.' It is accompanied by perceiving as well.
Observation also plays a major role in formulating and testing hypothesis in social sciences. Behavioural scientists observe interactions in small
groups; anthropologists observe simple societies, and small com-munities; political scientists observe the behaviour of political leaders and political
institutions.
Types of Observation
Observation may be classified in different ways. With reference to the investigator’s role, it may be classified into (a) participant observation, and (b)
non-participant observation. In terms of mode of observation, it may be classified into (c) direct observation, and (d) indirect observation. With
reference to the rigour of the system adopted, observation is classified into (e) controlled observation, and (f) uncontrolled observation