The circulatory system, also called the cardiovascular system or the vascular system, is an organ system that permits blood to circulate and transport nutrients (such as amino acids and electrolytes), oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from the cells in the body to provide nourishment and help in fighting diseases, stabilize temperature and pH, and maintain homeostasis.
The respiratory system (also respiratory apparatus, ventilatory system) is a biological system consisting of specific organs and structures used for gas exchange in animals and plants. The anatomy and physiology that make this happen varies greatly, depending on the size of the organism, the environment in which it lives and its evolutionary history. In land animals the respiratory surface is internalized as linings of the lungs. Gas exchange in the lungs occurs in millions of small air sacs; in mammals and reptiles these are called alveoli, and in birds they are known as atria. These microscopic air sacs have a very rich blood supply, thus bringing the air into close contact with the blood.These air sacs communicate with the external environment via a system of airways, or hollow tubes, of which the largest is the trachea, which branches in the middle of the chest into the two main bronchi. These enter the lungs where they branch into progressively narrower secondary and tertiary bronchi that branch into numerous smaller tubes, the bronchioles. In birds the bronchioles are termed parabronchi. It is the bronchioles, or parabronchi that generally open into the microscopic alveoli in mammals and atria in birds. Air has to be pumped from the environment into the alveoli or atria by the process of breathing which involves the muscles of respiration.
In most fish, and a number of other aquatic animals (both vertebrates and invertebrates) the respiratory system consists of gills, which are either partially or completely external organs, bathed in the watery environment. This water flows over the gills by a variety of active or passive means. Gas exchange takes place in the gills which consist of thin or very flat filaments and lammelae which expose a very large surface area of highly vascularized tissue to the water.
Other animals, such as insects, have respiratory systems with very simple anatomical features, and in amphibians even the skin plays a vital role in gas exchange. Plants also have respiratory systems but the directionality of gas exchange can be opposite to that in animals. The respiratory system in plants includes anatomical features such as stomata, that are found in various parts of the plant.
The lymphatic system is a network of tissues, vessels and organs that work together to move a colorless, watery fluid called lymph back into your circulatory system (your bloodstream).
Some 20 liters of plasma flow through your body’s arteries and smaller arteriole blood vessels and capillaries every day. After delivering nutrients to the body’s cells and tissues and receiving their waste products, about 17 liters are returned to the circulation by way of veins. The remaining three liters seep through the capillaries and into your body’s tissues. The lymphatic system collects this excess fluid, now called lymph, from tissues in your body and moves it along until it's ultimately returned to your bloodstream.
Your lymphatic system has many functions. Its key functions include:
Maintains fluid levels in your body: As just described, the lymphatic system collects excess fluid that drains from cells and tissue throughout your body and returns it to your bloodstream, which is then recirculated through your body.
Absorbs fats from the digestive tract: Lymph includes fluids from your intestines that contain fats and proteins and transports it back to your bloodstream.
Protects your body against foreign invaders: The lymphatic system is part of the immune system. It produces and releases lymphocytes (white blood cells) and other immune cells that monitor and then destroy the foreign invaders — such as bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi — that may enter your body.
Transports and removes waste products and abnormal cells from the lymph.
A tissue is a group of connected cells that have a similar function within an organism. There are four basic types of tissue in the body of all animals, including the human body. These make up all the organs, structures and other contents of the body.
Blood is considered a connective tissue because it has a matrix. ... Blood Tissue: Blood is a connective tissue that has a fluid matrix, called plasma, and no fibers. Erythrocytes (red blood cells), the predominant cell type, are involved in the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
The autonomic nervous system (ANS), formerly the vegetative nervous system, is a division of the peripheral nervous system that supplies smooth muscle and glands, and thus influences the function of internal organs. The autonomic nervous system is a control system that acts largely unconsciously and regulates bodily functions, such as the heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal.
The respiratory system (also respiratory apparatus, ventilatory system) is a biological system consisting of specific organs and structures used for gas exchange in animals and plants. The anatomy and physiology that make this happen varies greatly, depending on the size of the organism, the environment in which it lives and its evolutionary history. In land animals the respiratory surface is internalized as linings of the lungs. Gas exchange in the lungs occurs in millions of small air sacs; in mammals and reptiles these are called alveoli, and in birds they are known as atria. These microscopic air sacs have a very rich blood supply, thus bringing the air into close contact with the blood.These air sacs communicate with the external environment via a system of airways, or hollow tubes, of which the largest is the trachea, which branches in the middle of the chest into the two main bronchi. These enter the lungs where they branch into progressively narrower secondary and tertiary bronchi that branch into numerous smaller tubes, the bronchioles. In birds the bronchioles are termed parabronchi. It is the bronchioles, or parabronchi that generally open into the microscopic alveoli in mammals and atria in birds. Air has to be pumped from the environment into the alveoli or atria by the process of breathing which involves the muscles of respiration.
In most fish, and a number of other aquatic animals (both vertebrates and invertebrates) the respiratory system consists of gills, which are either partially or completely external organs, bathed in the watery environment. This water flows over the gills by a variety of active or passive means. Gas exchange takes place in the gills which consist of thin or very flat filaments and lammelae which expose a very large surface area of highly vascularized tissue to the water.
Other animals, such as insects, have respiratory systems with very simple anatomical features, and in amphibians even the skin plays a vital role in gas exchange. Plants also have respiratory systems but the directionality of gas exchange can be opposite to that in animals. The respiratory system in plants includes anatomical features such as stomata, that are found in various parts of the plant.
The lymphatic system is a network of tissues, vessels and organs that work together to move a colorless, watery fluid called lymph back into your circulatory system (your bloodstream).
Some 20 liters of plasma flow through your body’s arteries and smaller arteriole blood vessels and capillaries every day. After delivering nutrients to the body’s cells and tissues and receiving their waste products, about 17 liters are returned to the circulation by way of veins. The remaining three liters seep through the capillaries and into your body’s tissues. The lymphatic system collects this excess fluid, now called lymph, from tissues in your body and moves it along until it's ultimately returned to your bloodstream.
Your lymphatic system has many functions. Its key functions include:
Maintains fluid levels in your body: As just described, the lymphatic system collects excess fluid that drains from cells and tissue throughout your body and returns it to your bloodstream, which is then recirculated through your body.
Absorbs fats from the digestive tract: Lymph includes fluids from your intestines that contain fats and proteins and transports it back to your bloodstream.
Protects your body against foreign invaders: The lymphatic system is part of the immune system. It produces and releases lymphocytes (white blood cells) and other immune cells that monitor and then destroy the foreign invaders — such as bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi — that may enter your body.
Transports and removes waste products and abnormal cells from the lymph.
A tissue is a group of connected cells that have a similar function within an organism. There are four basic types of tissue in the body of all animals, including the human body. These make up all the organs, structures and other contents of the body.
Blood is considered a connective tissue because it has a matrix. ... Blood Tissue: Blood is a connective tissue that has a fluid matrix, called plasma, and no fibers. Erythrocytes (red blood cells), the predominant cell type, are involved in the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
The autonomic nervous system (ANS), formerly the vegetative nervous system, is a division of the peripheral nervous system that supplies smooth muscle and glands, and thus influences the function of internal organs. The autonomic nervous system is a control system that acts largely unconsciously and regulates bodily functions, such as the heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal.
The lymphatic system is part of the immune system. It also maintains fluid balance and plays a role in absorbing fats and fat-soluble nutrients.
The lymphatic or lymph system involves an extensive network of vessels that passes through almost all our tissues to allow for the movement of a fluid called lymph. Lymph circulates through the body in a similar way to blood.
There are about 600 lymph nodes in the body. These nodes swell in response to infection, due to a build-up of lymph fluid, bacteria, or other organisms and immune system cells.
A person with a throat infection, for example, may feel that their "glands" are swollen. Swollen glands can be felt especially under the jaw, in the armpits, or in the groin area. These are, in fact, not glands but lymph nodes.
A complete lecture of the Histology of Muscle Tissues, taught at First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, in the Histology department, for the first year English medium foreign medical students.
Circulation BloodVessels Heart Blood Diseases Circulatory System
2. Overview of Circulation Pulmonary circulation: blood flow between the heart and lungs Systemic circulation: blood flow from heart to rest of the body Cardiac circulation: blood flow within the heart
The lymphatic system is part of the immune system. It also maintains fluid balance and plays a role in absorbing fats and fat-soluble nutrients.
The lymphatic or lymph system involves an extensive network of vessels that passes through almost all our tissues to allow for the movement of a fluid called lymph. Lymph circulates through the body in a similar way to blood.
There are about 600 lymph nodes in the body. These nodes swell in response to infection, due to a build-up of lymph fluid, bacteria, or other organisms and immune system cells.
A person with a throat infection, for example, may feel that their "glands" are swollen. Swollen glands can be felt especially under the jaw, in the armpits, or in the groin area. These are, in fact, not glands but lymph nodes.
A complete lecture of the Histology of Muscle Tissues, taught at First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, in the Histology department, for the first year English medium foreign medical students.
Circulation BloodVessels Heart Blood Diseases Circulatory System
2. Overview of Circulation Pulmonary circulation: blood flow between the heart and lungs Systemic circulation: blood flow from heart to rest of the body Cardiac circulation: blood flow within the heart
Human cardiovascular system, organ system that conveys blood through vessels to and from all parts of the body, carrying nutrients and oxygen to tissues and removing carbon dioxide and other wastes. It is a closed tubular system in which the blood is propelled by a muscular heart. Two circuits, the pulmonary and the systemic, consist of arterial, capillary, and venous components.
The primary function of the heart is to serve as a muscular pump propelling blood into and through vessels to and from all parts of the body. The arteries, which receive this blood at high pressure and velocity and conduct it throughout the body, have thick walls that are composed of elastic fibrous tissue and muscle cells. The arterial tree—the branching system of arteries—terminates in short, narrow, muscular vessels called arterioles, from which blood enters simple endothelial tubes (i.e., tubes formed of endothelial, or lining, cells) known as capillaries. These thin, microscopic capillaries are permeable to vital cellular nutrients and waste products that they receive and distribute. From the capillaries, the blood, now depleted of oxygen and burdened with waste products, moving more slowly and under low pressure, enters small vessels called venules that converge to form veins, ultimately guiding the blood on its way back to the heart.
Right to Information is an act of the Parliament of India which sets out the rules and procedures regarding citizens' right to information. It replaced the former Freedom of Information Act, 2002.
Cells are the basis of life—the basic structural unit of living things. Molecules such as water and amino acids are not alive but cells are! All life is comprised of cells of one type or another.
One of the hallmarks of living systems is the ability to maintain homeostasis, or a relatively constant internal state. The cell is the first level of complexity able to maintain homeostasis, and it is the unique structure of the cell that enables this critical function.
In this section of the course, you will learn about the cell and all the parts that make it functional. You will also focus on the cell membrane, which is the structure that surrounds the cell and separates its internal environment from the external environment. It is a critical component because it controls what can enter and exit the cell. This section will also describe how cells reproduce to maintain homeostasis.Cells are the basis of life—the basic structural unit of living things. Molecules such as water and amino acids are not alive but cells are! All life is comprised of cells of one type or another.
One of the hallmarks of living systems is the ability to maintain homeostasis, or a relatively constant internal state. The cell is the first level of complexity able to maintain homeostasis, and it is the unique structure of the cell that enables this critical function.
In this section of the course, you will learn about the cell and all the parts that make it functional. You will also focus on the cell membrane, which is the structure that surrounds the cell and separates its internal environment from the external environment. It is a critical component because it controls what can enter and exit the cell. This section will also describe how cells reproduce to maintain homeostasis.
In the simplest of words, heredity refers to the passing of traits or characteristics through genes from one generation (parent) to the other generation (offspring). Heredity is very evidently seen in sexual reproduction. ... Variation is important because it contributes to the evolution and forms the basis of heredity.
Plants respond to things like light, gravity, touch, water etc. These are environmental stimuli for a plant. Plants coordinate their behavior by using their hormones and respond to the environmental changes. This they do by affecting the growth of a plant.
The nervous system helps in controlling and coordinating various activities of the human body. The three types of nerves, cranial nerves, spinal nerves and visceral nerves run through the body and help in sending and receiving messages in the form of electrical impulses.
Gravity, or gravitation, is a natural phenomenon by which all things with mass or energy—including planets, stars, galaxies, and even light—are brought toward one another. On Earth, gravity gives weight to physical objects, and the Moon's gravity causes the ocean tides.
In plant anatomy, tissues are categorized broadly into three tissue systems: the epidermis, the ground tissue, and the vascular tissue. Epidermis - Cells forming the outer surface of the leaves and of the young plant body. Vascular tissue - The primary components of vascular tissue are the xylem and phloem.
The periodic table, also known as the periodic table of elements, is a tabular display of the chemical elements, which are arranged by atomic number, electron configuration, and recurring chemical properties. The structure of the table shows periodic trends.
Human reproduction is any form of sexual reproduction resulting in human fertilization. It typically involves sexual intercourse between a man and a woman. During sexual intercourse, the interaction between the male and female reproductive systems results in fertilization of the woman's ovum by the man's sperm.
In stereochemistry, stereoisomerism, or spatial isomerism, is a form of isomerism in which molecules have the same molecular formula and sequence of bonded atoms, but differ in the three-dimensional orientations of their atoms in space.
Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is an infectious disease caused by a new virus.
The disease causes respiratory illness (like the flu) with symptoms such as a cough, fever, and in more severe cases, difficulty breathing. You can protect yourself by washing your hands frequently, avoiding touching your face, and avoiding close contact (1 meter or 3 feet) with people who are unwell.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
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Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
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Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
2. INTRODUCTION
Cardiovascular system consist of heart and blood
vessels.
It is mainly a transport system.
It transport respiratory gases, nutrients and
excretory products to various part of the body.
Blood is the medium through which these substance are
transported.
Cardiovascular system divided into two main parts:
1. Circulatory system:
Circulator system consisting of heart which act as a pump
and the blood vessel through which the blood circulates.
2. Lymphatic system:
Lymphatic system consisting of lymph nodes and lymph
vessel through which colourless lymph flows.
4. HEART
The heart is a muscular organ in most animals,
which pumps blood through the blood vessels of
the circulatory system.
The pumped blood carries oxygen and nutrients to
the body, while carrying metabolic waste such
as carbon dioxide to the lungs.
Heart is a thick, muscular, reddish brown,
conical, hollow and musculotendinous organ.
It lies in the thorax between lung and behind the
sternum.
It is about 10 cm long and weights about 300 gm.
The heart is approximately the size of a closed fist and
is located between the lungs, in the middle
compartment of the chest.
6. STRUCTURE OF HEART
The heart s composed of the three layers of
the tissues:-
1. Pericardium
2. Myocardium
3. Endocardium
7. 1. PERICARDIUM
Heart is surrounded by an outer covering layer
known as pericardium.
It is a thin, transport, two layered sac.
The inner layer is called visceral pericardium
and outer layer is called parietal pericardium.
A narrow cavity between two layers is known
pericardial cavity which is filled with a fluid
called pericardial fluid.
It performs two function:-
a. It allows frictionless movements of heart.
b. It protects the heart from mechanical shock.
9. 2. MYOCARDIUM
The middle layer is known as myocardium
which made heart fibres.
These muscle fibre found only in the heart.
It is the muscular tissue of heart, it is not
under voluntary control.
The myocardium is thickest at the apex and
thin out towards the base.
11. 3. ENDOCARDIUM
The inner layer is known as endocardium.
It is smooth thin membrane that permits
smooth flow of blood inside the heart.
This lines the chamber and valve of the
heart.
13. CHAMBERS OF HEART
Heart is made of four chambers that is, two atria and
two ventricles.
Atria: The atria are smaller with their walls because
they have to push the blood only upto ventricles.
Both atria or auricles are separated by a inter-
auricular septum which prevents mixing of
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in heart.
Ventricles: The ventricles are larger and thicker.
Left ventricle is much thicker than right ventricle
(about three times) because ventricle has to push the
blood to a body parts while right ventricle has to
push the blood to closely lying lungs only.
Both ventricle are separated by a thick inter-ventricular
septum. So there is mixing of deoxygenated and
oxygenated blood in heart.
15. A) RIGHT AURICLE
It receives deoxygenated blood by three
large veins- superior vena cava, inferior
vena cava and coronary sinus.
Right auricle opens in the right ventricle
through the right atrioventricular valve or
tricuspid valve.
It regulates unidirectional flow of blood from
right auricle to right ventricle but prevents
the back flow of blood. (with the number of
whitish elastic threads called chordae tendineae
which extends from tricuspid valve to wall of right
ventricle)
16. B) LEFT AURICLE
It receives oxygenated blood from lungs by
four pulmonary veins. (two each lungs)
Left auricle open in left ventricle by the help
of the left atrioventricular valve or bicuspid
valve.
It regulates the flow of blood from left
auricle to left ventricle but prevents back
flow of blood (with the help of chordae
tendineae similar to those in right ventricles.)
17. A) RIGHT VENTRICLES
From the right ventricles arise from the
pulmonary artery or arch or aorta which
carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
18. B) LEFT VENTRICLES
Left ventricle originates aorta or arch which
carries oxygenated blood to various parts of
the body.
At the base of each of pulmonary and aortic
arches, there is a valve called pulmonary valve
and aortic valve.
These allow blood to enter the great artery
from ventricle, but prevent the back flow of
blood into the ventricle.
19. VALVES OF THE HEART
The opening between right atrium and right
ventricle is guarded by ‘tricuspid valves’.
The opening between left atrium and left
ventricle is guarded by ‘bicuspid valve’.
The two atrioventricular valves are one
way that keeps the flow of blood from the
arteries to the ventricles and not the other
way.
21. CIRCULATION OF BLOOD THROUGH HEART
Heart is four-chambered and has complete
double circulation which means blood
possess twice through the heart to supply
once to the body.
There are two circulation:-
A. Pulmonary circulation
B. Systemic circulation
22. A. PULMONARY CIRCULATION
In this blood complete its circulation from right
ventricle to left auricle through the lungs.
It is the part of circulation involving the purification
(oxygenation) of blood in the lungs.
Here, the right ventricle pumps deoxygenated
blood into pulmonary artery.
Then the pulmonary artery carries this blood to the
lungs where it is oxygenated.
Then the four pulmonary veins carry the purified
blood from lungs to left auricle of the heart.
Then left auricle pumps the blood to left
ventricle.
23. B. SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION
In this blood completes its circulation from left
ventricle to right auricle through body
organs.
Here the left ventricle pumps oxygenated
blood into systemic arch which supplies it to
body organ other than the lungs through a
number of arteries.
Deoxygenated blood from these organs are
returned to the right auricle through two
large veins, superior and inferior vena cava.
Right auricle pumps the deoxygenated blood
in the right ventricle.
25. ARTERIAL AND VENOUS SYSTEM
The heart pumps blood into arteries. The
arteries divide and subdivide and finally end in
capillaries.
The capillaries later unite to form veins. The
veins returns blood to the heart.
So arteries carry pure (oxygenated) blood
from the heart.
The veins carry impure (deoxygenated)
blood to the heart.
Capillaries are minute channels.
They receive blood from smaller arteries
(arterioles) and deliver into smaller veins
(venules).
27. ARTERIES & ARTERIOLES
These are the blood vessel that transport blood
away from the heart.
They vary considerably in size and their wall
consist of three layer of tissue.
They are; arteries and veins have the same layer of
structure.
1. Tunica adventitia:
It is the outer layer of fibrous tissue.
2. Tunica media:
It is the middle layer of smooth muscles and
elastic.
3. Tunica intima:
It is the inner layer of squamous epithelium
called endothelium.
29. VEINS AND VENULES
Veins are blood vessel that return blood at
low pressure to the heart.
The wall of the veins are thinner than those
of arteries but have the same three layer of
tissues.
They are thinner because there is less muscle
and elastic tissue in the tunica media.
The veins carry blood at a lower pressure
than arteries.
The smallest veins are called venules.
31. CAPILLARIES
The smallest arterioles break up into a number of
a minute vessel called capillaries.
Capillary well consist of a single layer of
endothelial cell.
32. FUNCTION OF HEART
The heart acts as a pump. It maintain a constant
circulation of blood throughout the body. It is achieved
as follows:-
The superior vena cava and inferior vena cava bring venous
parts of the body to the heart. The venous blood fills the
right atrium.
When it is full, the right atrium contracts sending blood
to the right ventricle.
Now, the right ventricles contracts. This send blood to
the lungs through pulmonary trunk (which divides into
right and left pulmonary arteries).
The blood gets oxygenated in the lungs. The oxygenated
blood is carried by pulmonary veins to the left atrium.
Now the left atrium contracts and sends blood to the left
ventricle.
Now the left ventricle contracts and sends blood into the
aorta. This blood is circulated throughout the body except
lungs.
33. CARDIAC CYCLE
It involves alternate contraction (called
systole) and relaxation (called diastole) of
heart at the rate of 70-72 times per minute at
rest.
All the chambers do not beat simultaneously.
Right and left auricles contract
simultaneously while both ventricle also
work simultaneously.
The sequence of events that occur during
one heart beat is called cardiac cycle.
Cardiac cycle occurs in two phase:-
I. Systole: A period of contraction
II. Diastole: A period of relaxation
35. HEART SOUNDS
During a cardiac cycle two heart sound can be
heard.
Totally, four sounds are produced by the
heart.
The first sound as LUB and the second sound
as DUB can be heard with a stethoscope.
The third & fourth sounds cannot be heard.
36. 1. LUB OR SYSTOLIC SOUND
It is heard during the beginning of ventricular
systole and is produce due to rapid closing of
atrioventricular valves to prevents back flow
of blood from the ventricles of atria.
37. 2. DUB OR DIASTOLIC SOUND
It is heard during the beginning of ventricular
diastolic and is due to rapid closing of semi-
lunar valves to prevents back flow of blood
from the great arteries to the ventricle.
38. ELECTROCARDIOGRAM (ECG)
It is the recording of electrical activity of the
heart.
ECG is the instruments which is used to record the
electrical current generated in the heart.
The heart current can be recorded by connecting
any two parts of the body with this instruments.
The connections are called as ‘Leads’.
There are bipolar and unipolar leads.
A. Bipolar leads: they are three type-
i. Lead 1- Electrodes connecting to the right & left
arm.
ii. Lead 2- Right arm & left leg
iii. Lead 3- Left arm & left leg
B. Unipolar leads: they are two type-
i. Unipolar limbs leads- VR, VL, VF
ii. Unipolar chest leads- V1 , V2 , V3 , V4 , V5 & V6
39. ECG WAVES
During recording electrical activity of the heart
some waves are produced;
These waves are known as P, Q, R, S and T waves.
P-wave: is formed due to the stimulation and
contraction of the atria.
Q,R,S-wave: are formed by the contraction of the
ventricles.
T-wave: are formed by the relaxation of the ventricles.
U-wave: are formed due to the continue electrical
activity after the relaxation of the ventricles. It is
very small.
PR-interval: it represents the time taken by the
impulses to travel from the SA node to AV node. It is
measured from the P-wave.
Note:- Normal time of PR-interval is 0.12 to 0.16 sec.
If PR-interval is move than 0.20 seconds it means that
there may be some heart disease.
42. HEART RATE
Number of heart beats per minute is known as
the heart rate.
The normal heart rate is as follows;
In an adult: 72/minute
In old age: 75-80/minute
In newborn child: 130-140/minute
In children upto 5 years: 90-140/minute
Generally the heart rate is increased during
exercise, emotion & in some diseased
conditions.
Heart rate is decreased during sleep, shock
and in some disease.
43. BLOOD PRESSURE
It is the pressure exerted by the blood vessels
known as B.P.
The blood pressure which is normally expressed
by arterial blood pressure.
It has two phase:-
A. Systolic blood pressure: It is the maximum
blood pressure. This occurs during the
systole of heart. (Range 100-120 mmHg)
B. Diastolic blood pressure: It is the minimum
blood pressure. It occurs during the diastole
of heart. (Range 60-80 mmHg)
44. Cardiac output:
It is defined as the quantity of blood pumped
by the heart in one minute.
Pulse pressure:
It is the difference between systolic and
diastolic blood pressure. It is nearly 40 mmHg.
45. DISORDERS
Tachycardia: Increase in the heart rate.
Bradycardia: Decrease in the heart rate.
Cardiac arrhythmia: It is the disorder in cardiac
rate and rhythm.
It occurs due to defective impulse formation and
conduction in the heart.
Angina pectoris: It occurs due to narrowing of
coronary arteries.
Hypertension: It is a rise in BP above normal.
Hypotension: It is occur due to low blood
pressure.
Atherosclerosis: It is the thickening of arterial
walls due to the deposition of fat.
Phlebitis: It is the infection of the vein wall due
to inflammation or injury.