This document reviews traditional and non-traditional risk factors for cardiovascular disease. It discusses how hypertension, diabetes, high total cholesterol, high LDL cholesterol, high triglycerides, and low HDL cholesterol are traditional risk factors. It also examines non-traditional markers like homocysteine, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, fibrinogen, and various inflammatory markers that may help predict cardiovascular risk. While many non-traditional markers show promise, most are not routinely used in clinical practice and their predictive value requires further confirmation.
There has been an increase in the predominance of diabetes mellitus over the past 40 years worldwide. The worldwide occurrence of diabetes in 2000 was approximately 2.8% and is estimated to grow to 4.4% by 2030. This data interprets a projected rise of diabetes from 171 million in 2000 to well over 350 million in 2030. The presence of hypertension in diabetic patients substantially increases the risks of coronary heart disease, stroke, nephropathy and retinopathy. Indeed, when hypertension coexists with diabetes, the risk of CVD is increased by 75%, which further contributes to the overall morbidity and mortality of an already high risk population. Patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus have a considerably higher risk of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, and are disproportionately affected by cardiovascular disease. Most of this excess risk is associated with high prevalence of well-established risk factors such as hypertension, dyslipidaemia and obesity in these patients. Hypertension plays a major role in the development and progression of microvascular and macrovascular disease in people with diabetes. Lifestyle Modifications and pharmacotherapy are the choice for the Management of Hypertension in Patients with Diabetes.
Assessment of the Prevalence of Some Cardiovascular Risk Factors among the O...Scientific Review SR
The prevalence of some cardiovascular risk factors among the Ogonis and Ikwerres in Rivers State,
Nigeria was assessed in two hundred subjects. Well structured questionnaires were used to assess smoking status,
duration of diabetes, age, weight, and height from the participants. Measurement of blood pressure was done to
ascertain the blood pressure of the subjects. Analysis of fasting blood sugar was done to confirm diabetes s tatus of
participants. Body mass index (BMI), was calculated from the height and weight. The mean age of males in the
study was higher than that of the females (P=.05). Mean SBP and DBP values were significantly higher (P=.05)
among the Ikwerres and Ogonis. BMI was significantly higher for Ogonis than Ikwerres ( P=.05). In the various
categories of risk, BMI for males was diabetics (47.89), smokers (44.73) and hypertensives (45.37) for type III
obesity which shows a higher risk for cardiovascular disease.
Study on the Health Related Quality of Life of Patients with Ischemic strokeiosrjce
The work entitled, “Study on the health related quality of life of patients with ischemic stroke” was
conducted in the department of Neurology at a multispecialty hospital. After receiving the official approval, the
study was conducted for a period of eight months from December 2013 to August 2014. A total of 278 cases with
Neurological disorders were found, of which 117(42 %) patients were with ischemic stroke. Hypertension (59%)
and Diabetes (53%) were the major co-morbid conditions found. The Health related quality of life of the
patients was assessed by direct interviewing of individual patients with a stroke specific questionnaire. The
Health related quality of life of the patients was assessed by direct interviewing of individual patients with a
stroke specific questionnaire. Quality of life assessments are done by various methods like taking the floor and
ceiling effects of the scores, average score calculation etc. Assessment of the floor and ceiling effect showed the
potential for floor effects in the most difficult domain(strength) and the possibility of a ceiling effect in the
communication domain. Assessment of stroke severity is done by taking the mean and SD of the individual domains
There has been an increase in the predominance of diabetes mellitus over the past 40 years worldwide. The worldwide occurrence of diabetes in 2000 was approximately 2.8% and is estimated to grow to 4.4% by 2030. This data interprets a projected rise of diabetes from 171 million in 2000 to well over 350 million in 2030. The presence of hypertension in diabetic patients substantially increases the risks of coronary heart disease, stroke, nephropathy and retinopathy. Indeed, when hypertension coexists with diabetes, the risk of CVD is increased by 75%, which further contributes to the overall morbidity and mortality of an already high risk population. Patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus have a considerably higher risk of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, and are disproportionately affected by cardiovascular disease. Most of this excess risk is associated with high prevalence of well-established risk factors such as hypertension, dyslipidaemia and obesity in these patients. Hypertension plays a major role in the development and progression of microvascular and macrovascular disease in people with diabetes. Lifestyle Modifications and pharmacotherapy are the choice for the Management of Hypertension in Patients with Diabetes.
Assessment of the Prevalence of Some Cardiovascular Risk Factors among the O...Scientific Review SR
The prevalence of some cardiovascular risk factors among the Ogonis and Ikwerres in Rivers State,
Nigeria was assessed in two hundred subjects. Well structured questionnaires were used to assess smoking status,
duration of diabetes, age, weight, and height from the participants. Measurement of blood pressure was done to
ascertain the blood pressure of the subjects. Analysis of fasting blood sugar was done to confirm diabetes s tatus of
participants. Body mass index (BMI), was calculated from the height and weight. The mean age of males in the
study was higher than that of the females (P=.05). Mean SBP and DBP values were significantly higher (P=.05)
among the Ikwerres and Ogonis. BMI was significantly higher for Ogonis than Ikwerres ( P=.05). In the various
categories of risk, BMI for males was diabetics (47.89), smokers (44.73) and hypertensives (45.37) for type III
obesity which shows a higher risk for cardiovascular disease.
Study on the Health Related Quality of Life of Patients with Ischemic strokeiosrjce
The work entitled, “Study on the health related quality of life of patients with ischemic stroke” was
conducted in the department of Neurology at a multispecialty hospital. After receiving the official approval, the
study was conducted for a period of eight months from December 2013 to August 2014. A total of 278 cases with
Neurological disorders were found, of which 117(42 %) patients were with ischemic stroke. Hypertension (59%)
and Diabetes (53%) were the major co-morbid conditions found. The Health related quality of life of the
patients was assessed by direct interviewing of individual patients with a stroke specific questionnaire. The
Health related quality of life of the patients was assessed by direct interviewing of individual patients with a
stroke specific questionnaire. Quality of life assessments are done by various methods like taking the floor and
ceiling effects of the scores, average score calculation etc. Assessment of the floor and ceiling effect showed the
potential for floor effects in the most difficult domain(strength) and the possibility of a ceiling effect in the
communication domain. Assessment of stroke severity is done by taking the mean and SD of the individual domains
There was a time when Man was the son of nature, interacting and part of the whole process of life. Then, as his fate, man progressed, invented, produced, flourished and finally prevailed on earth. He created artificial systems in which he lived, and at times seemed so close to being protected and safe from any natural phenomenal impact. Then he realized that his own creation, byproducts, beside his aggression against his own kind were being his enemy. In recent years, disasters increased in frequency, where grade 4 or more, hurricanes attacked the southern parts of the USA, as well in Asia. Large ice bergs cracked in Greenland, North and South poles, dissolving in the sea. There is an increase or rise of the Sea level, although it is few cms a year but it became a reality
https://crimsonpublishers.com/eaes/fulltext/EAES.000501.php
For more open access journals in Crimson Publishers
Please click on link: https://crimsonpublishers.com
For More Articles on Environmental Analysis & Ecology Studies
Please click on: https://crimsonpublishers.com/eaes/
Current trends in cardiovascular assessmentAlfred Bett
This paper describe the emerging trends of assessing cardiovascular in health care setting with the aim of improving the quality of service delivery to patient. It considers the increased case of people affected by heart attack
What are the cardiovascular disorders?
Public Health importance
Burden of disease
Risk factors of cardiovascular disorders
Causation
Prevention strategies
Global Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of NCDs
India - National programme (NPCDCS)
The Use of Artificial Neural Network and Logistic Regression to Predict the I...Crimsonpublisherscojnh
The Use of Artificial Neural Network and Logistic Regression to Predict the Influence of Lifestyle on Cardiovascular Risk Factors by Jahandideh S*, Jahandideh M, Asefzadeh S and Ziaee A in COJ Nursing & Healthcare
Background; Myocardial Infarction (MI) is a term which is used for defining the necrosis in the heart muscle due to the lack of the oxygen need of myocardium which cannot be supplied by the coronaries. Aim: This study was carried out to determine the effects of some lifestyle and anthropometric parameters on some cardiac enzymes. Methods: A total of 146 students of sex, age bracket, (16 - 30) were recruited for this study. Enzymatic methods were used in the determination of AST, ALT, CKMB activities. Anthropometric measurements of the participants were taken. The result showed that there was significant increase in systolic blood pressure (SBP), weight and height (p<0.05), but there was no significant increase in their diastolic blood pressure (DBP) and body mass index (BMI) (p>0.05) in the serum ALT, AST, and CKMB activities. However, there was significant difference in ALT and AST activities (P<0.05) but there was no significant difference in serum CKMB activity (P>0.05). Statistically the percentage of the participants that had their serum ALT activity above the reference range were 16.6%, those within the reference range were 83.4%,. In serum AST activity, the percentage above the reference range were 19.9%, those within the reference range were 80.1%. Meanwhile, in serum CK-MB activity, those above the reference range were 25.2% while those within the reference range were 74.8%. Conclusion: This could be probably indicate that the leakage of AST and ALT activities may be of hepatic origin. . The non-significant increase in CKMB which is a specific marker of myocardial injury, could suggest that the subjects were not at risk of developing of myocardial infarction as regards their age.
Clinical Profile of Acute Coronary Syndrome among Young AdultsPremier Publishers
Acute Coronary Syndrome accounts for 30% of hospital admissions with cardiovascular diseases. The risk of this syndrome is increasing among the younger adults, and a deep insight into the clinical profile among these patients will help in devising a preventive strategy, in order to alleviate the morbidity and mortality due to the syndrome. A cross sectional study was done among 125 subjects admitted to our tertiary care hospital with Acute Coronary Syndrome. Their risk factors were assessed and a 12 Lead electrocardiogram and 2D Echocardiogram were taken. Cardio III panel which consists of Troponin I, CK MB, BNP by COBAS meter machine was also measured. STEMI was present in 73.6% of the patients, while unstable angina was present in 16%. About 90% of STEMI patients were males and 62% of them were hypertensives. LV Ejection Fraction <30% was found in 9% of STEMI patients. This study elucidates the need for a preventive strategy for primordial prevention of cardiovascular events among young adults. The study envisaged the male, urban preponderance towards these events.
A Study of the Prevalence of Cardio-Vascular Diseases and Its Risk Factors (B...inventionjournals
International Journal of Pharmaceutical Science Invention (IJPSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Pahrmaceutical Science. IJPSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Crimson Publishers: Insulin Therapy and Cardiovascular Outcome Trials (CVOTs)...CrimsonGastroenterology
The therapeutic management of diabetes may on its own increase the risk of cardiovascular (CV) risk markers – directly or indirectly – through their pharmacological actions (e.g. side effects as hypoglycaemia), or some metabolic changes (e.g. Weight-Gain, increased BP, etc.). As these risks may not have been anticipated or immediately noticed during clinical trials, 1 post hoc analyses and epidemiological follow up of clinical trials have raised concerns about the CV safety of some drugs used in the management of diabetes.
CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE is a modern epidemic in india. due to changes in living conditions and habits its prevalence is increasing day by day . in this presentation i have explained the various risk factors and innovations in diagnosis of CAD. IT is very useful for primary health care physicians and community medicine specialist
ABSTRACT- In today’s modern lifestyle high blood cholesterol is one of the most dreaded causes of heart diseases among the global population. Fast lifestyle, lack of exercise, obesity and improper food intake all sum up to deranged lipid profile as well as diabetes. Diabetes and high blood cholesterol goes hand in hand which leads to an increased incidence of coronary artery and cardiovascular disorders which still remains as one of the leading causes of mortality overall. In the present study there has been an effort put to draw a correlation between glycosylated hemoglobin which is a marker for level of blood glucose in diabetic patients as well as deranged lipid profile. Blood samples collected in sterile vials were first centrifuged and then put into analyzer for the computation of the lipid profile and the glycosylated hemoglobin. Results computed were made a note of and then prepared for statistical analysis. Results thus obtained showed that females showed significantly higher levels of total serum cholesterol and Non-HDL compared to males other than that their lipid parameters were a little higher than males in general. Diabetic female patients showed a significantly higher level of glycosylated hemoglobin. There was a significant difference in the HDL values of patients in pre diabetic state and worst control of glycemic hemoglobin. There were also significant differences observed in the TGL, TGL/HDL and VLDL values between Diabetic and control patients. In general there were increased correlation of HbA1c with TSC and LDL and the respective ratios as HbA1c increases while LDL/HDL showed a significant increase with HbA1c.
Key-words- Cholesterol, Diabetes mellitus, Lipid profile, HDL, LDL, Lipid ratios
A Study on Food Habits and Social Habits as Risk Factors among Patients Under...ijtsrd
AIM A study on food habits and social habits as risk factors among patients undergoing Percutaneous Transluminal Coronary Angioplasty PTCA OBJECTIVE To know the association of food habits and social habits as risk factors for PTCA. To observe various co morbidities among the patients To study the bio chemical parameters in patients such as heamoglobin, PVC, platelet count, bilirubin levels. To observe various social habits in the patient, such as smoking and alcohol consumption. Food consumption pattern. METHODOLOGY The sample population n = 60 of 28 80 years of age were chosen from a multi speciality hospital in Hyderabad. All the patients were of different age groups, sex, socio economic status, ethnicity with different co morbidities. A pre tested format consisting of patients profile, subjective data, objective data, biochemical data, medications and 24 hour dietary recall followed by medical nutrition therapy during the hospital stay. RESULTS Among n=60 subjects from 28 80 years of age, the detailed study identified the common risk factors with respect to cardiovascular diseases. The study showed a higher percentage of age from 28 70 years and is mostly in males. Majority of the patients are with increased BMI and are alcholics smokers. Obesity, Hypertension and Diabetes are predominant and dietary patterns recorded are mostly non vegetarians with high calorie, high fat and high protein consumption. CONCLUSION From the result it is very clear that majority of the patients studied with cardiovascular diseases belong to the age group 28 70 years and is mostly seen in males. Majority of them are accompanied with co morbidities with obesity, hypertension and diabetic. And predominantly follow a high calorie and high fat diet .Thus leading to a conclusion that consumption of high calorie and high fat food, presence of co morbidities and smoking could be the risk factors of PTCA. Mrs. Meena Kumari | Mrs. Y. V. Phani Kumari | Gwyneth Madhulika Bashapaga | Ittamala Jaya Rachel ""A Study on Food Habits and Social Habits as Risk Factors among Patients Undergoing Percatenous Transluminal Coronary Angioplasty (PTCA)"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-3 , April 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd23372.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/23372/a-study-on-food-habits-and-social-habits-as-risk-factors-among-patients-undergoing-percatenous-transluminal-coronary-angioplasty-ptca/mrs-meena-kumari
There was a time when Man was the son of nature, interacting and part of the whole process of life. Then, as his fate, man progressed, invented, produced, flourished and finally prevailed on earth. He created artificial systems in which he lived, and at times seemed so close to being protected and safe from any natural phenomenal impact. Then he realized that his own creation, byproducts, beside his aggression against his own kind were being his enemy. In recent years, disasters increased in frequency, where grade 4 or more, hurricanes attacked the southern parts of the USA, as well in Asia. Large ice bergs cracked in Greenland, North and South poles, dissolving in the sea. There is an increase or rise of the Sea level, although it is few cms a year but it became a reality
https://crimsonpublishers.com/eaes/fulltext/EAES.000501.php
For more open access journals in Crimson Publishers
Please click on link: https://crimsonpublishers.com
For More Articles on Environmental Analysis & Ecology Studies
Please click on: https://crimsonpublishers.com/eaes/
Current trends in cardiovascular assessmentAlfred Bett
This paper describe the emerging trends of assessing cardiovascular in health care setting with the aim of improving the quality of service delivery to patient. It considers the increased case of people affected by heart attack
What are the cardiovascular disorders?
Public Health importance
Burden of disease
Risk factors of cardiovascular disorders
Causation
Prevention strategies
Global Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of NCDs
India - National programme (NPCDCS)
The Use of Artificial Neural Network and Logistic Regression to Predict the I...Crimsonpublisherscojnh
The Use of Artificial Neural Network and Logistic Regression to Predict the Influence of Lifestyle on Cardiovascular Risk Factors by Jahandideh S*, Jahandideh M, Asefzadeh S and Ziaee A in COJ Nursing & Healthcare
Background; Myocardial Infarction (MI) is a term which is used for defining the necrosis in the heart muscle due to the lack of the oxygen need of myocardium which cannot be supplied by the coronaries. Aim: This study was carried out to determine the effects of some lifestyle and anthropometric parameters on some cardiac enzymes. Methods: A total of 146 students of sex, age bracket, (16 - 30) were recruited for this study. Enzymatic methods were used in the determination of AST, ALT, CKMB activities. Anthropometric measurements of the participants were taken. The result showed that there was significant increase in systolic blood pressure (SBP), weight and height (p<0.05), but there was no significant increase in their diastolic blood pressure (DBP) and body mass index (BMI) (p>0.05) in the serum ALT, AST, and CKMB activities. However, there was significant difference in ALT and AST activities (P<0.05) but there was no significant difference in serum CKMB activity (P>0.05). Statistically the percentage of the participants that had their serum ALT activity above the reference range were 16.6%, those within the reference range were 83.4%,. In serum AST activity, the percentage above the reference range were 19.9%, those within the reference range were 80.1%. Meanwhile, in serum CK-MB activity, those above the reference range were 25.2% while those within the reference range were 74.8%. Conclusion: This could be probably indicate that the leakage of AST and ALT activities may be of hepatic origin. . The non-significant increase in CKMB which is a specific marker of myocardial injury, could suggest that the subjects were not at risk of developing of myocardial infarction as regards their age.
Clinical Profile of Acute Coronary Syndrome among Young AdultsPremier Publishers
Acute Coronary Syndrome accounts for 30% of hospital admissions with cardiovascular diseases. The risk of this syndrome is increasing among the younger adults, and a deep insight into the clinical profile among these patients will help in devising a preventive strategy, in order to alleviate the morbidity and mortality due to the syndrome. A cross sectional study was done among 125 subjects admitted to our tertiary care hospital with Acute Coronary Syndrome. Their risk factors were assessed and a 12 Lead electrocardiogram and 2D Echocardiogram were taken. Cardio III panel which consists of Troponin I, CK MB, BNP by COBAS meter machine was also measured. STEMI was present in 73.6% of the patients, while unstable angina was present in 16%. About 90% of STEMI patients were males and 62% of them were hypertensives. LV Ejection Fraction <30% was found in 9% of STEMI patients. This study elucidates the need for a preventive strategy for primordial prevention of cardiovascular events among young adults. The study envisaged the male, urban preponderance towards these events.
A Study of the Prevalence of Cardio-Vascular Diseases and Its Risk Factors (B...inventionjournals
International Journal of Pharmaceutical Science Invention (IJPSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Pahrmaceutical Science. IJPSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Crimson Publishers: Insulin Therapy and Cardiovascular Outcome Trials (CVOTs)...CrimsonGastroenterology
The therapeutic management of diabetes may on its own increase the risk of cardiovascular (CV) risk markers – directly or indirectly – through their pharmacological actions (e.g. side effects as hypoglycaemia), or some metabolic changes (e.g. Weight-Gain, increased BP, etc.). As these risks may not have been anticipated or immediately noticed during clinical trials, 1 post hoc analyses and epidemiological follow up of clinical trials have raised concerns about the CV safety of some drugs used in the management of diabetes.
CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE is a modern epidemic in india. due to changes in living conditions and habits its prevalence is increasing day by day . in this presentation i have explained the various risk factors and innovations in diagnosis of CAD. IT is very useful for primary health care physicians and community medicine specialist
ABSTRACT- In today’s modern lifestyle high blood cholesterol is one of the most dreaded causes of heart diseases among the global population. Fast lifestyle, lack of exercise, obesity and improper food intake all sum up to deranged lipid profile as well as diabetes. Diabetes and high blood cholesterol goes hand in hand which leads to an increased incidence of coronary artery and cardiovascular disorders which still remains as one of the leading causes of mortality overall. In the present study there has been an effort put to draw a correlation between glycosylated hemoglobin which is a marker for level of blood glucose in diabetic patients as well as deranged lipid profile. Blood samples collected in sterile vials were first centrifuged and then put into analyzer for the computation of the lipid profile and the glycosylated hemoglobin. Results computed were made a note of and then prepared for statistical analysis. Results thus obtained showed that females showed significantly higher levels of total serum cholesterol and Non-HDL compared to males other than that their lipid parameters were a little higher than males in general. Diabetic female patients showed a significantly higher level of glycosylated hemoglobin. There was a significant difference in the HDL values of patients in pre diabetic state and worst control of glycemic hemoglobin. There were also significant differences observed in the TGL, TGL/HDL and VLDL values between Diabetic and control patients. In general there were increased correlation of HbA1c with TSC and LDL and the respective ratios as HbA1c increases while LDL/HDL showed a significant increase with HbA1c.
Key-words- Cholesterol, Diabetes mellitus, Lipid profile, HDL, LDL, Lipid ratios
A Study on Food Habits and Social Habits as Risk Factors among Patients Under...ijtsrd
AIM A study on food habits and social habits as risk factors among patients undergoing Percutaneous Transluminal Coronary Angioplasty PTCA OBJECTIVE To know the association of food habits and social habits as risk factors for PTCA. To observe various co morbidities among the patients To study the bio chemical parameters in patients such as heamoglobin, PVC, platelet count, bilirubin levels. To observe various social habits in the patient, such as smoking and alcohol consumption. Food consumption pattern. METHODOLOGY The sample population n = 60 of 28 80 years of age were chosen from a multi speciality hospital in Hyderabad. All the patients were of different age groups, sex, socio economic status, ethnicity with different co morbidities. A pre tested format consisting of patients profile, subjective data, objective data, biochemical data, medications and 24 hour dietary recall followed by medical nutrition therapy during the hospital stay. RESULTS Among n=60 subjects from 28 80 years of age, the detailed study identified the common risk factors with respect to cardiovascular diseases. The study showed a higher percentage of age from 28 70 years and is mostly in males. Majority of the patients are with increased BMI and are alcholics smokers. Obesity, Hypertension and Diabetes are predominant and dietary patterns recorded are mostly non vegetarians with high calorie, high fat and high protein consumption. CONCLUSION From the result it is very clear that majority of the patients studied with cardiovascular diseases belong to the age group 28 70 years and is mostly seen in males. Majority of them are accompanied with co morbidities with obesity, hypertension and diabetic. And predominantly follow a high calorie and high fat diet .Thus leading to a conclusion that consumption of high calorie and high fat food, presence of co morbidities and smoking could be the risk factors of PTCA. Mrs. Meena Kumari | Mrs. Y. V. Phani Kumari | Gwyneth Madhulika Bashapaga | Ittamala Jaya Rachel ""A Study on Food Habits and Social Habits as Risk Factors among Patients Undergoing Percatenous Transluminal Coronary Angioplasty (PTCA)"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-3 , April 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd23372.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/23372/a-study-on-food-habits-and-social-habits-as-risk-factors-among-patients-undergoing-percatenous-transluminal-coronary-angioplasty-ptca/mrs-meena-kumari
Diagnosis of Early Risks, Management of Risks, and Reduction of Vascular Dise...asclepiuspdfs
In a recent issue of the Journal of Circulation, American Heart Association has published a scientific statement, related to the excess heart disease and acute vascular events in South Asians living in the USA. The same group of experts, also have published a complementary article in Circulation titled, “call to action: Cardiovascular disease (CVD) in Asian Americans.”I being a South Asian immigrant living in the USA, have always wondered as to why we do not have the same benefits as the other resident Americans in terms of the advantages of living in a highly advanced country? According to a study done in 2013, cardiovascular mortality has declined and diabetes mortality has increased in high-income countries. The study done in 26 industrialized nations, estimated the potential role of trends in population, for body mass index, systolic blood pressure, serum total cholesterol, and smoking, the modifiable risk factors identified as the promoters of CVD, and acute vascular events, by the Framingham Heart Study (FHS) group.
Introduction: In the general population, left ventricular hypertrophy affects 15–20% of adults. Patients with cardiovascular disease frequently have LVH. Compared to the general population, patients with DM have an increased rate of LVH. Many studies indicate a connection between diabetes mellitus and left ventricular dysfunction.Aim: The aim was to study the prevalence of LVH among DM patients in a hospital-based setting in south India.Methods: In a hospital-based population in south India, we looked at the relationship between diabetes mellitus and left ventricular failure. The study comprised 133 diabetic patients from our institution who met the inclusion requirements. ECG and ECHO were used to assess the subjects for the presence of LVH. Diabetes patients had a 25.6% prevalence of left ventricular hypertrophy. We found significant differences in the older age, hypertension, duration, duration of type 2 diabetes mellitus, mean fasting blood sugar (FBS), and HbA1c (P = 0.0020) when we compared both groups of participants with DM. However, neither the gender nor the body mass index (BMI) showed any significant results (P = 0.3112).Conclusion: LVH is more common in diabetics than in non-diabetics by a large margin. In diabetic patients with systemic hypertension, older age groups, those who have had diabetes and hypertension for a longer period of time, as well as those with higher FBS and HbA1c values, LVH prevalence rises even more.
Prevalence of Chronic Kidney disease in Patients with Metabolic Syndrome in S...asclepiuspdfs
Background and Objective: Chronic kidney disease (CKD) which is an increasingly important clinical and public health issue is associated with cardiovascular disease. Epidemiologic studies have also linked metabolic syndrome (MetS) with an increased risk of incident CKD. Therefore, the present study was designed retrospectively to find the prevalence and potential risk factors of CKD in patients with MetS in Saudi Arabia.
HIGH SENSITIVE C-REACTIVE PROTEIN (hs-CRP) AND ITS CORRELATION WITH ANGIOGRAP...M A Hasnat
Association between the plasma hs-CRP levels and the severity of coronary
stenosis in subjects remains controversial. This cross sectional study was performed in the
Department of Cardiology, Dhaka Medical College during July 2008 to December 2009, to determine whether the concentrations of hs-CRP correlate with the coronary atherosclerotic disease assessed by coronary angiography.
A Comparative Study to Assess the Knowledge of the Risk Factors and Identify ...ijtsrd
The present study has been conducted to know assess the knowledge of the risk factors and identify risk for coronary vascular diseases CVD among students studying in selected high schools of urban and rural areas of Gwalior. The selection of sample was done through convenient sampling. The sample size was 300. The method of data collection was through demographic variables and self structured knowledge questionnaire, compersion regarding risk for coronary vascular diseases CVD studying in selected high schools students. Mr. Gagan Raj | Mr. Farukh Khan "A Comparative Study to Assess the Knowledge of the Risk Factors and Identify Risk for Coronary Vascular Diseases (CVD) among Students Studying in Selected High Schools of Urban and Rural Areas of Gwalior" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-7 | Issue-4, August 2023, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd58615.pdf Paper Url:https://www.ijtsrd.com/medicine/nursing/58615/a-comparative-study-to-assess-the-knowledge-of-the-risk-factors-and-identify-risk-for-coronary-vascular-diseases-cvd-among-students-studying-in-selected-high-schools-of-urban-and-rural-areas-of-gwalior/mr-gagan-raj
In Pakistan, the overall prevalence of dyslipidemia in adolescents aged 10–18 years is 21.7~25.2%; prevalence is reported to be two times higher (53.1~56.1%) in obese adolescents. However, few studies have been conducted on the relationship between height and blood lipid concentrations in children and adolescents The recent emphasis on treatment of the dyslipidemia of the metabolic syndrome (hypertriglyceridemia, reduced high-density lipoprotein, and increased small, dense low-density lipoprotein particle number) has compelled practitioners to consider lipid-lowering therapy in a greater number of their patients, as one in two individuals over age 50 has the metabolic syndrome. Individuals with the metabolic syndrome typically have normal low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels, and current lipid-lowering guidelines may underestimate their cardiovascular risk. Two subgroups of patients with the metabolic syndrome are at particularly high risk for premature CAD. One, individuals with type 2 diabetes, accounts for 20-30% of early cardiovascular disease. The second, familial combined hyperlipidemia, accounts for an additional 10-20% of premature CAD. Familial combined hyperlipidemia is characterized by the metabolic syndrome in addition to a disproportionate elevation of apolipoprotein B levels. The measurement of fasting glucose and apolipoprotein B, in addition to the fasting lipid profile, can help to estimate CAD risk in patients with the metabolic syndrome. In this research we compared allopathic medication and medicinal herb in treating hyperlipidemia.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
Anti ulcer drugs and their Advance pharmacology ||
Anti-ulcer drugs are medications used to prevent and treat ulcers in the stomach and upper part of the small intestine (duodenal ulcers). These ulcers are often caused by an imbalance between stomach acid and the mucosal lining, which protects the stomach lining.
||Scope: Overview of various classes of anti-ulcer drugs, their mechanisms of action, indications, side effects, and clinical considerations.
1. See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/306086376
Cardiovascular diseases: Traditional and non-traditional risk factors
Article in Journal of Medical and Allied Sciences · July 2016
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3. Shaima C et al Traditional and non-traditional markers of CVD
J Med Allied Sci 2016;6(2)
addition, among cohort individuals who did not suf-
fered CHD, the rates of traditional cardiovascular
risk factors were also relatively high
10
. Given these
findings, new research has focused on ways of
enhancing our ability to predict CVD. However,
many of these show promise and most widely used
in routine clinical practice.
Hypertension and cardiovascular disease
In its Sixth Report, the Joint National Committee on
Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment
of High Blood Pressure (1997) defines categorical
hypertension as a BP ≥140 mmHg systolic or ≥90
mmHg diastolic or current use of antihypertensive
drugs. Several observational studies have con-
firmed clearly a powerful relationship between high
BP and CHD
11-13
. This relationship holds for both
men and women and younger and older persons.
Occasionally those with high BP are at higher risk
of CHD
14
.
Diabetes and cardiovascular disease
Risk for all forms of CVD, is increased significantly
in patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes melli-
tus
15,16
. The mortality rate in non-diabetic patients
was less compared to diabetic patients who expe-
rienced CHD
17,18
. Hyperglycemia is considered to
be the potential risk factor while it is not dependant
on the normally observed characters in diabetics
like obesity and dyslipidemia. Good glycemic con-
trol decreases risk for microvascular complications
of diabetes. However, in diabetic patients, signifi-
cant control of glucose has not been reducing the
macrovascular disease (CHD), although a trend
toward benefit has been observed
19
.
Total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholester-
ol and cardiovascular disease
Cholesterol is synthesized almost in all cells and
considerable amounts of it can be absorbed from
the diet. According to the lipid hypothesis, unusual-
ly high cholesterol levels (hypercholesterolemia),
or higher concentrations of LDL cholesterol have
been recognized as principle lipid risk factors
20
.
Various studies have confirmed that blood TC lev-
els have an exponential role on cardiovascular and
total mortality, with the association more evident in
younger subjects. In old age people, the effect of
higher cholesterol on health is indeed larger
21
.
Several studies have consistently confirmed that
CHD risk and TC had a dose-response relation-
ship. The Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial
(MRFIT) screened >300,000 men and established
a curvilinear relation between TC and age-adjusted
CHD death rate; in MRFIT screeners with a TC
level of ≥240 mg/dL, relative risk (RR) for CHD,
compared with those with TC <182 mg/dL, the
death rate was 3.4
22
. Conversely, except TC, there
are factors influencing the risk of CHD risk was
clearly established by studies of 25 years of follow-
up in the Seven Countries Study (SCS)
23
, in which
a dose-response association between TC and
CHD mortality rate was observed.
Studies across different populations demonstrate
that those with higher cholesterol levels have more
atherosclerosis and CHD than do those who hav-
ing lower levels (Keys et al., 1984). The positive
association between proportion of serum choles-
terol and onset of first or consequent CHD attack,
due to elevated LDL cholesterol, was observed;
the higher the level, the greater the risk
24
. Prospec-
tive data recommended that the risk of CHD at
lower cholesterol levels and this evident has dis-
appeared in larger studies
24,25
. Population with
very low serum cholesterol e.g. TC <150 mg/dL (or
LDL cholesterol <100 mg/dL) witness the almost
absence of clinical CHD throughout the life
26,27
.
The association between the elevated LDL choles-
terol to the onset of CHD observed to be a multi-
step process
28
. Atherogenesis, the fatty streak,
having macrophages filled with cholesterol, is the
first stage and most of them derived from LDL cho-
lesterol. The fibrous plaques, scar tissue over lipid
rich core, are the second stage. Other risk factors
also contribute to plaque growth. The third stage is
demonstrated the onset of plagues, prone to rup-
ture and luminal thrombosis formation, of unstable.
Plaque rupture is responsible for most acute coro-
nary syndromes (ACS)
29,30
.
Triglycerides, very low-density lipoprotein choles-
terol and cardiovascular disease
Triglyceride (TG) is an ester formed from a glycerol
molecule, provided OH group each with and make
up the majority of fats, which was later properly
utilized by digestion. Lipids cannot be absorbed by
the duodenum in TG form and it is absorbed as
fatty acids, monoglycerides and some diglycerides,
once the TG have been digested. In the human
body, high levels of TG in the bloodstream have
been linked to atherosclerosis and CHD.
Several observational studies and analysis pub-
lished in the earlier years largely support TG as an
independent risk factor for CHD. These studies
47
4. Shaima C et al Traditional and non-traditional markers of CVD
J Med Allied Sci 2016;6(2)
have been performed in populations over a wide
spectrum of ages in a number of countries with
quite different rates of CVD
31-34
. Traditionally, CHD
events due to elevated TG were predicted in
univariate analysis, after adjustment for other co-
variates, including plasma glucose and HDL cho-
lesterol, to which it is strongly and inversely corre-
lated
35
. Yet, even after adjustment for HDL choles-
terol, detailed assessment of population-based
prospective studies has disclosed an independent
effect of TG on CHD events
36
. Coupled with the
knowledge that combined hyperlipidemia promotes
CHD to a significantly greater extent than either
high LDL cholesterol or TG alone
37
.
Very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) cholesterol is a
type of lipoprotein formed by the liver, which ena-
ble movement of fats and cholesterol within blood
stream. It is accumulated in the liver from choles-
terol and apolipoproteins, which converted in the
bloodstream to LDL cholesterol. VLDL cholesterol
transports endogenous products (such as TG,
phospholipids, cholesterol and cholesteryl esters)
where chylomicrons transport exogenous (dietary)
products.
The most likely candidates for atherogenic TG-rich
lipoproteins (TGRLP) are remnant lipoproteins.
These lipoproteins include small VLDL cholesterol
and lipoproteins of intermediate-density i.e., IDL.
The atherogenicity of remnants was well supported
by several reviews
38-40
. In several clinical studies
elevation as well as their specific identification of
remnants was noticed to be strong predictors of
CHD
41-42
.
High-density lipoprotein cholesterol and cardiovas-
cular disease
HDL cholesterol is one of the 5 major groups of
lipoproteins cholesterol, which enable lipids like
cholesterol and TG to be transported within the
water based blood stream. In healthy persons,
about thirty percent of blood cholesterol is carried
by HDL cholesterol. An increased level of HDL
cholesterol protect against CVD while lowering
which cause enhanced heart disease risk. When
measuring cholesterol, some contained in HDL
particles is considered as guardians of the cardio-
vascular health of the body, in contrast to "bad”
LDL cholesterol.
Strong epidemiological evidence links low serum
HDL to increased CHD morbidity and mortality
43,44
.
High HDL cholesterol levels conversely convey
reduced risk. Various epidemiological data taken
as a whole suggest that a 1 percent decrease in
HDL cholesterol is associated with a 2–3 percent
increase in CHD risk
44
. Low HDL cholesterol,
based on epidemiology studies, to be an inde-
pendent risk factor for CHD and it holds after cor-
rection for other risk variables in multivariate anal-
ysis.
In fact, in prospective studies
45,46
, HDL cholesterol
usually the risk factor of CHD risk having high cor-
relation with CHD risk. Adult Treatment Panel II
(ATP II) at <35 mg/dL were noticed as a low HDL
cholesterol, one of several major risk factors used
to modify the therapeutic goal for LDL cholesterol.
The definition of low-HDL cholesterol was set to be
the same for both genders because the level of
HDL cholesterol would impart the same risk for
men and women.
Non-traditional risk markers
The epidemiological and basic science search for
better understanding of the etiology of CVD has
produced numerous serum markers as candidates
for representing “nontraditional” risk. Several are
part of the progression of inflammation - a process,
now understood to be central to atherosclerotic
disease
47
. Candidates have included
homocysteine, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1
(PAI-1), fibrinogen, D-dimer and throm-
bin/antithrombin III complex; and various inflamma-
tory markers such as CRP, interleukin (IL), serum
amyloid A (SAA), MMP and adhesion molecule.
However, many of these markers show promise,
most are not used in routine clinical practice and
the predictive power of many has not been con-
firmed.
Homocysteine
It was clearly understood from the literatures
48,49
that the role of homocysteine as oxidative stress
indicator. As a mediator of one carbon metabolism,
homocysteine, levels are associated with CVD
50-52
.
It was suggested
53
(Humphrey et al., 2008) that,
the level of homocysteine moderately increase the
risk of CVD by 20%. Ueland et al.
54
and Van
Guldener et al.
55
reported that, the one type of
CVDs, like stroke and deep vein thrombosis can be
reduced by reducing the level of homocysteine by
3-5 mol/L in serum.
Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1)
PAI-1 is the key fibrinolysis regulator. Jugo et al.
56
based on the bivariate analysis, stated that, the
PAI-1 was directly correlated with carotid intima-
media thickness, BP, Body Mass Index (BMI), LDL
and total cholesterol, glomerular filtration and tri-
glycerides. Zhuang et al.
57
reported that, the pa-
tients with acute ischemic stroke had significant
48
5. Shaima C et al Traditional and non-traditional markers of CVD
J Med Allied Sci 2016;6(2)
amount of t-PA, while level of PAI-1 was reduced
significantly. Existence of negative correlation be-
tween t-PA and PAI-1 was revealed and significant
difference in activities of t-PA and PAI-1 was ob-
served in control group, acute, convalescent and
chronic groups. Tofler et al.
58
revealed that, those
with CVD have higher level of PAI-1 (29.1 ng/ml)
compared to those without (22.1 ng/ml) CVD. It
was also observed from his experiment that, an
antigen level of PAI-1 and t-PA was in strong linear
relationship with CVD incidence.
Fibrinogen
Fibrinogen (Fg), the precursor of fibrin, coagulation
factor described first in 1836 by Buchanan. The
hematological changes such as increase in viscosi-
ty of plasma, aggregation of erythrocytes,
thrombogenesis of platelets are due to increase in
level of Fg
59
. Meade et al.
60
, based on the epide-
miological studies, stated that the risk of CVD such
as ischaemic heart disease, thromboembolism and
stroke increase with respect to the increase in con-
centration of plasma Fg.
D-dimer
The fibrin degradation marker, D-dimer, one of the
important marker associated with CVD. Lind et al.
61
in his longitudinal cohort study on 719 patients with
oral anticoagulant revealed the association of CVD
with higher level of D-dimer. Fruchter et al.
62
,
based on data from clinical and laboratory, pro-
posed D-dimer as prominent prognostic marker of
short and long term survivors subjected to acute
exacerbation. He also noticed the changes in the
mean D-dimer level in non-survivors (3.18 mg/L
and survivors (1.45 mg/L).
Interleukin
Interleukin-6, the potent prognosis indicator in se-
rum, used as a tool for the early diagnosis of CVD
based on clinical trials
63
. Reichert et al.
64
suggest-
ed from his study with 942 coronary heart disease
(CHD) revealed that the polymorphism in IL-6 c.-
174 CC genotype was found to be the independent
risk marker of CHD. Similarly, Buraczynska et al.
65
provided an information that, the patients with dia-
betic (Type-2) having an allele of C IL-6 G(-174)C
are highly susceptible to CVD.
Conclusion
Studies implicate urbanization, westernization of
diet and increasing rates of smoking, obesity, and
diabetes contributes to disease pathogenesis. The
steps taken towards the control of CVD during the
past decades reduced mortality related to CVD.
Potential risk factors for CVD include hypertension,
tobacco use, physical inactivity, elevated low-
density lipoprotein cholesterol, diabetes and a clus-
ter of interrelated metabolic risk factors
4
. However,
many patients never acquired adequate control
over the CVD risk factors even when these factors
have been identified. Besides the growing preva-
lence of obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (Type
-2 DM) threatens to decline the improvements in
CVD that have been achieved. The increased inci-
dence of obesity has contributed to significant in-
crease in the prevalence of other important CVD
risk factors, including hypertension, dyslipidemia,
insulin resistance, and type 2 DM
4
. Various studies
have confirmed that blood cholesterol are primarily
important component that leads to CVD and its
associated mortality evidenced in younger sub-
jects. A high level of HDL cholesterol seems to
protect against CVD and low HDL cholesterol lev-
els increase the risk for heart disease. Non-
traditional risk markers includes homocysteine,
coagulation markers such as plasminogen activa-
tor inhibitor-1 (PAI-1), fibrinogen, D-dimer and
thrombin/anti-thrombin III complex; and various
inflammatory markers such as CRP, interleukin
(IL), serum amyloid A (SAA), MMP and adhesion
molecule. Pharmacologic therapies are now avail-
able to address individual CVD risk factors and are
being evaluated, including endo-cannabinoid re-
ceptor antagonists, peroxisome proliferator inhibi-
tor are regulating the activity of glucagon-like pep-
tide-1
4
.
Acknowledgments: Authors thank Dr. A. Vijaya
Anand, Head of the department of Human Genet-
ics and Molecular Biology, Bharathiar Univeristy,
Coimbatore for his valuable suggestion and correc-
tion.
Conflict of interest: None
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