The document discusses the thyroid FNA procedure and diagnostic categories. It provides details on:
- Performing thyroid FNA under ultrasound guidance using a 25 gauge needle with 3-4 passes.
- Preparing direct smears, cytospins, cell blocks and liquid-based preparations from the aspirated material.
- The Bethesda system for reporting thyroid cytopathology which includes 6 diagnostic categories and their associated cancer risks to guide clinical management.
- Key cytologic features that help diagnose common thyroid lesions and cancers.
14 5-13 ipmr approach to cancer diagnosisSimba Syed
This document discusses different approaches to cancer diagnosis, including clinical suspicion based on symptoms and history, physical examination to find signs, screening examinations for early diagnosis, and various diagnostic techniques. It covers cytologic diagnosis using samples from various sites and tissues, histologic diagnosis through biopsy methods, specialized staining, immunohistochemistry, electron microscopy, and flow cytometry. Radiologic imaging and serologic tests are also discussed for diagnostic or staging purposes. The pathology report provides information on tumor type, behavior, grade, invasion extent, pathologic stage, and other details to guide treatment and prognosis.
diagnosis of cancer, bioluminescent detection, diagnosis of cancer, haplotype mapping, imaging gene expression in vivo, types of cancer diagnosis method, ultrasound imaging
This document discusses various methods used in pathologic diagnosis of tumors, including histological examination of biopsy samples, cytological methods like exfoliative cytology and fine needle aspiration cytology, special staining techniques, immunohistochemistry, electron microscopy, tumor markers, and modern techniques like flow cytometry, in situ hybridization, and molecular diagnostic methods. The key information provided is an overview of the major diagnostic tools and techniques used in pathological analysis of tumors.
This document discusses several methods for diagnosing cancer pathologically, including radiological, cytological, histological, and hematological diagnosis as well as immunohistochemistry, electron microscopy, and molecular diagnosis. Key diagnostic tests are invasive tests like cytological analysis and biopsy as well as non-invasive tests like X-rays, ultrasound, CT, MRI, and PET scans. Cytological diagnosis involves exfoliative cytology like Pap smears and fine needle aspiration cytology. Histological diagnosis uses biopsy to study cancer tissue at a microscopic level. Tumor markers found in body fluids or tissues can also help diagnose cancer.
Head & neck cancer current perspectives, advances, and challengesSpringer
This document discusses cytopathology of head and neck lesions. It begins by introducing cytopathology as the microscopic study of diseased cells dispersed on glass slides, as opposed to histopathology which examines tissues maintaining cellular architecture. Fine needle aspiration is described as the main cell collection method for head and neck lesions, being minimally invasive and allowing rapid diagnosis. The document focuses on the cytopathology of common lesions in salivary glands, thyroid, and cervical lymph nodes. It provides details on FNA technique and processing, highlights advantages like sensitivity and specificity, and notes limitations such as difficulty distinguishing some salivary gland tumors. Representative cytology images are included to illustrate normal and diseased states.
color atlas on bethesda system for reporting thyroid cytologyAshish Jawarkar
this is a color atlas on bethesda system for reporting thyroid cytology. there are nearly 300 images in atlas with explanatory text which will help students and practitioners alike. All images are taken from pap society web atlas.. and entire credit for this work should go to the society.. I have put together images available at one place..
THIS IS A PREVIEW ONLY..ENTIRE DOCUMENT IS AVAILABLE ON SCRIBD.. LINK PROVIDED IN DOCUMENT
This article discusses recent advances in molecular diagnostics for salivary gland tumors and their applications to cytopathology. Fine needle aspiration biopsy of salivary glands can accurately diagnose benign versus malignant lesions but has limitations in tumor subtyping. New insights into recurrent gene fusions and translocations in tumors like pleomorphic adenoma, mucoepidermoid carcinoma and adenoid cystic carcinoma from molecular studies now enable more precise cytopathological diagnosis and classification using techniques like fluorescence in situ hybridization. Identification of tumor-specific gene fusions and protein markers can help distinguish lesions that were previously difficult to classify on cytology alone.
The document discusses the thyroid FNA procedure and diagnostic categories. It provides details on:
- Performing thyroid FNA under ultrasound guidance using a 25 gauge needle with 3-4 passes.
- Preparing direct smears, cytospins, cell blocks and liquid-based preparations from the aspirated material.
- The Bethesda system for reporting thyroid cytopathology which includes 6 diagnostic categories and their associated cancer risks to guide clinical management.
- Key cytologic features that help diagnose common thyroid lesions and cancers.
14 5-13 ipmr approach to cancer diagnosisSimba Syed
This document discusses different approaches to cancer diagnosis, including clinical suspicion based on symptoms and history, physical examination to find signs, screening examinations for early diagnosis, and various diagnostic techniques. It covers cytologic diagnosis using samples from various sites and tissues, histologic diagnosis through biopsy methods, specialized staining, immunohistochemistry, electron microscopy, and flow cytometry. Radiologic imaging and serologic tests are also discussed for diagnostic or staging purposes. The pathology report provides information on tumor type, behavior, grade, invasion extent, pathologic stage, and other details to guide treatment and prognosis.
diagnosis of cancer, bioluminescent detection, diagnosis of cancer, haplotype mapping, imaging gene expression in vivo, types of cancer diagnosis method, ultrasound imaging
This document discusses various methods used in pathologic diagnosis of tumors, including histological examination of biopsy samples, cytological methods like exfoliative cytology and fine needle aspiration cytology, special staining techniques, immunohistochemistry, electron microscopy, tumor markers, and modern techniques like flow cytometry, in situ hybridization, and molecular diagnostic methods. The key information provided is an overview of the major diagnostic tools and techniques used in pathological analysis of tumors.
This document discusses several methods for diagnosing cancer pathologically, including radiological, cytological, histological, and hematological diagnosis as well as immunohistochemistry, electron microscopy, and molecular diagnosis. Key diagnostic tests are invasive tests like cytological analysis and biopsy as well as non-invasive tests like X-rays, ultrasound, CT, MRI, and PET scans. Cytological diagnosis involves exfoliative cytology like Pap smears and fine needle aspiration cytology. Histological diagnosis uses biopsy to study cancer tissue at a microscopic level. Tumor markers found in body fluids or tissues can also help diagnose cancer.
Head & neck cancer current perspectives, advances, and challengesSpringer
This document discusses cytopathology of head and neck lesions. It begins by introducing cytopathology as the microscopic study of diseased cells dispersed on glass slides, as opposed to histopathology which examines tissues maintaining cellular architecture. Fine needle aspiration is described as the main cell collection method for head and neck lesions, being minimally invasive and allowing rapid diagnosis. The document focuses on the cytopathology of common lesions in salivary glands, thyroid, and cervical lymph nodes. It provides details on FNA technique and processing, highlights advantages like sensitivity and specificity, and notes limitations such as difficulty distinguishing some salivary gland tumors. Representative cytology images are included to illustrate normal and diseased states.
color atlas on bethesda system for reporting thyroid cytologyAshish Jawarkar
this is a color atlas on bethesda system for reporting thyroid cytology. there are nearly 300 images in atlas with explanatory text which will help students and practitioners alike. All images are taken from pap society web atlas.. and entire credit for this work should go to the society.. I have put together images available at one place..
THIS IS A PREVIEW ONLY..ENTIRE DOCUMENT IS AVAILABLE ON SCRIBD.. LINK PROVIDED IN DOCUMENT
This article discusses recent advances in molecular diagnostics for salivary gland tumors and their applications to cytopathology. Fine needle aspiration biopsy of salivary glands can accurately diagnose benign versus malignant lesions but has limitations in tumor subtyping. New insights into recurrent gene fusions and translocations in tumors like pleomorphic adenoma, mucoepidermoid carcinoma and adenoid cystic carcinoma from molecular studies now enable more precise cytopathological diagnosis and classification using techniques like fluorescence in situ hybridization. Identification of tumor-specific gene fusions and protein markers can help distinguish lesions that were previously difficult to classify on cytology alone.
This document summarizes research on the morphological evaluation of atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance (ASC-US) in cervical cytology samples. It identifies six cytological patterns associated with ASC-US interpretations and correlates them with biopsy and HPV test results. These patterns include MGH-like, repair-like, atrophy-like single cells, atrophy-like parabasal cell groups, ASC-US not otherwise specified, and small atypical parakeratotic cells. The document also discusses cases showing low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (LSIL) co-existing with ASC-US features.
Bethesda system for reporting thyroid cytologyariva zhagan
The document discusses the Bethesda System for Reporting Thyroid Cytopathology (BSRTC), which provides a standardized classification system for thyroid fine needle aspiration (FNA) results. The BSRTC aims to improve communication between clinicians by establishing uniform diagnostic terminology. It categorizes FNA results as non-diagnostic, benign, atypia of undetermined significance/follicular lesion of undetermined significance, follicular neoplasm/suspicious for follicular neoplasm, suspicious for malignancy, or malignant. The document outlines the criteria for each category and risk of malignancy. It notes recent enhancements in the 2017 version of BSRTC, including recalculated risk of malignancy and the
Uma Nahar Saikia presented an update on thyroid tumors based on changes between the 2004 and 2017 WHO classification books. Key points included refined definitions for follicular variant papillary carcinoma and non-invasive follicular thyroid neoplasm with papillary-like nuclear features. New immunohistochemistry markers and molecular testing provide additional diagnostic information. The 8th AJCC TNM staging system features changes to N and T categories as well as separate staging for those under 55 years old. IgG4-related Hashimoto's thyroiditis was also discussed as an emerging entity.
Correlation between cytology and histopathological examination of endometrium...drshameera
Endometrial aspiration cytology (EAC) was compared to histopathology as the gold standard in diagnosing endometrial lesions in patients with abnormal uterine bleeding. 100 patients underwent both EAC and dilatation and curettage. EAC results found 70 cases of benign endometrium, 18 cases of hyperplasia, and 12 cases of malignancy. These findings correlated highly with histopathology results, with EAC demonstrating 95.59% sensitivity for benign lesions, 87.5% sensitivity for hyperplasia, and 100% sensitivity for malignancy. The study concluded that EAC is an effective, useful, and minimally invasive procedure for evaluating endometrial pathology, especially in high-
This slide presentation summarizes a cytology case involving a 38-year-old female patient. A cervical smear shows atypical cells with dense, scanty cytoplasm and enlarged hyperchromatic nuclei throughout the smear. Background shows sheets of neutrophils, coccobacilli and hemorrhage. The specimen is categorized as an epithelial cell abnormality and interpreted as a high-grade squamous intra-epithelial lesion. Colposcopic examination is suggested. The presentation provides further details on cytology techniques, classifications of abnormal cervical cells, screening guidelines, and characteristics of low and high-grade squamous lesions.
The bethesda system for reporting thyroid cytopathologyIndira Shastry
The document describes the Bethesda System for Reporting Thyroid Cytopathology (BSRTC), which was introduced in 2007 to standardize the reporting of thyroid fine needle aspiration (FNA) results. The BSRTC recommends diagnostic categories with implied cancer risks and clinical management guidelines. It provides criteria for adequate samples and defines each diagnostic category, including non-diagnostic, benign, atypia of undetermined significance, follicular neoplasm, suspicious for malignancy, and malignant. The BSRTC aims to improve communication between cytopathologists and clinicians regarding thyroid FNA interpretations and patient management.
The document summarizes the recommendations from an October 2007 meeting at the National Cancer Institute to develop a uniform reporting system for thyroid fine needle aspiration biopsies. It outlines six diagnostic categories with implied cancer risks and descriptions. The categories include non-diagnostic or unsatisfactory, benign, atypia of undetermined significance or follicular lesion of undetermined significance, follicular neoplasm or suspicious for follicular neoplasm, suspicious for malignancy, and malignant. Criteria for each category are provided along with typical clinical management based on the cancer risk implication of each category.
The Paris System for Reporting Urinary CytologyRawa Muhsin
The Paris System for Reporting Urinary Cytology provides standardized diagnostic categories for urine cytology specimens. It divides results into negative for high-grade urothelial carcinoma, positive for high-grade urothelial carcinoma, atypical urothelial cells, and suspicious for high-grade urothelial carcinoma based on the number and features of abnormal cells seen. The system aims to determine whether high-grade urothelial carcinoma is present or not, as this has important implications for patient management and prognosis. Risk of malignancy increases from negative to atypical to suspicious to positive categories.
Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) have potential clinical applications as biomarkers in colorectal cancer. Studies have found CTCs correlate with disease stage but not other clinical factors. Detecting CTCs before and during treatment can independently predict progression-free and overall survival. While CTC detection provides prognostic information, methodology challenges remain around isolating, quantifying, and characterizing CTCs reproducibly. Further research could help validate CTCs against standard biomarkers and guide personalized therapy.
This document summarizes urine cytology and various urinary markers for detecting bladder cancer. Urine cytology is the gold standard but has low sensitivity of 40-62%. Newer urinary markers like BTA, ImmunoCyt, NMP-22, and UroVysion have higher sensitivities than cytology of 50-86%, but lower specificities and can be affected by benign conditions. No single marker currently has a sensitivity of 90%, which patients indicate is needed to replace cystoscopy. Therefore, the best approach is a combination of cystoscopy and urinary markers for non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer surveillance.
Primitive neuroectodermal tumor (PNET) is a highly malignant tumor composed of small round cells of neuroectodermal origin that affects soft tissue and bone. PNETs are classified into groups depending on location, with peripheral PNET (pPNET) occurring in soft tissue and bone outside the central nervous system. pPNET includes Ewing sarcoma and Askin tumor. Diagnosis involves ruling out other small round cell tumors through molecular cytogenetic studies showing translocation between chromosomes 11 and 22. PNET most commonly presents in adolescents and young adults with pain, swelling, and mass effect. Prognosis depends on tumor site, volume, and presence of metastasis. Treatment involves complete surgical resection when possible along with
An exophytic lesion of the vagina cytological findingsMarceloPerazzoli
This document reports on a case of primary malignant melanoma of the vagina identified through cytological examination. A 74-year-old woman presented with a prolapsed anterior vaginal wall and exophytic lesions. A direct smear showed malignant cells that were initially misdiagnosed as squamous cell carcinoma. Biopsy revealed the presence of melanin pigment indicating malignant melanoma. Primary melanoma of the vagina is rare, accounting for less than 3% of vaginal malignancies. Accurate cytological diagnosis is challenging due to the rarity of this cancer and lack of overt pigmentation in some cases.
The Bethesda System is a standardized reporting system used for Pap test results. It provides a structured format for reporting cervical and vaginal cytology diagnoses. The system includes sections for specimen type, adequacy, interpretation/result, and optional notes. Interpretation/result categories include negative for intraepithelial lesion or malignancy, epithelial cell abnormalities (such as atypical squamous cells, low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion, or high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion), and other malignant neoplasms. Specific cytological features are described for each category. The system aims to improve consistency and communication of Pap test results.
This document discusses several pitfalls in the diagnosis of follicular epithelial proliferations of the thyroid. It addresses challenges in distinguishing hyperplastic follicular lesions from follicular adenomas. It also discusses criteria for diagnosing well-differentiated thyroid carcinomas based on nuclear features for papillary thyroid carcinoma and capsular/vascular invasion for follicular thyroid carcinoma. The document further addresses definitions of capsular and vascular invasion, the significance of extrathyroidal extension, how to define dedifferentiation, and when ancillary tools should be used in diagnosis.
The document provides information on cervical cytology screening and the Bethesda System for reporting results. It describes the Papanicolaou staining technique and liquid-based cytology collection methods. The Bethesda System categories for specimen adequacy, interpretation, and epithelial cell abnormalities are outlined. Normal cervical cell types are defined. Reactive, infectious, and other non-neoplastic findings are described. Atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance, low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions, and high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions are defined. Adenocarcinoma in situ and adenocarcinoma are also summarized.
Presentation dr rahul seminar (2)[1387]rahulraj956
This document discusses the role of fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) in evaluating salivary gland neoplasms. It begins with an introduction noting that salivary gland FNAs present challenges due to the wide range of possible lesions. It then covers normal salivary gland morphology, indications and contraindications for FNAC, advantages, technical considerations, complications, and classification of salivary gland lesions according to the WHO. Specific benign and malignant lesions are discussed in detail, including characteristics on cytology and differential diagnoses. Imaging is also shown demonstrating features of various lesions. In summary, the document provides a comprehensive overview of utilizing FNAC to evaluate salivary gland masses.
This document discusses cancer of unknown primary (CUP), which refers to patients who present with metastatic cancer but the original primary site is unknown. It notes that for most patients, biopsy of an accessible metastatic site is needed to help pathologists identify potential primary sites through tissue architecture and immunohistochemistry. Extensive imaging is rarely useful to find the primary site; a careful history and targeted imaging based on risk factors is more appropriate. Treatment should not wait for a definitive primary diagnosis, and chemotherapy may help reduce tumor burden for some patients, though long term survival is rare for CUP.
Bethesda System for thyroid cytopathologyPrecky Gabuat
This document provides guidelines for classifying thyroid cytopathology samples based on The Bethesda System.
It defines what constitutes an adequate sample and discusses various benign and atypical findings. Samples are classified as nondiagnostic, benign, atypia of undetermined significance, follicular neoplasm, or suspicious for follicular neoplasm based on cellularity, architecture, nuclear features, and the presence of colloid or Hürthle cells. Special circumstances including inflammation, cyst fluid, or abundant colloid can also affect classification. Precise terminology is recommended to communicate cytopathology results.
CANCER of UNKNOWN PRIMARY (CUP), Dr BÙI ĐẮC CHÍhungnguyenthien
Cancer of unknown primary (CUP) refers to metastatic cancer that has spread to other parts of the body but the original primary site cannot be identified. CUP makes up approximately 2-6% of cancer cases. Conventional methods to identify the primary site include imaging scans, medical history, physical exams, and laboratory tests. Molecular profiling using techniques like immunohistochemistry, gene expression profiling, and next generation sequencing can identify predictive biomarkers and actionable targets in around 80% of CUP cases. Identifying the primary site can help determine the best treatment approach and predict outcomes. Gene expression profiling tests like the Pathwork Tissue of Origin test can determine the likely tissue of origin with 99% certainty when the highest similarity score is above
This document discusses methods for diagnosing cancer. Cancer is initially suspected based on symptoms and screening tests and is then confirmed through diagnostic tests. The main diagnostic methods discussed are radiological tests like x-rays and CT scans, cytological tests like fine needle aspiration cytology, histological tests like biopsies, frozen section analysis, hematological tests, immunohistochemistry, molecular diagnosis, and tumor markers. These methods provide information about the presence, type, and stage of cancer. Obtaining an accurate diagnosis often requires using multiple diagnostic methods and getting a second opinion from an expert.
The study of disease transmission
By and large, the frequency of disease is higher in men than in ladies and higher in industrialized areas and countries.
This document summarizes research on the morphological evaluation of atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance (ASC-US) in cervical cytology samples. It identifies six cytological patterns associated with ASC-US interpretations and correlates them with biopsy and HPV test results. These patterns include MGH-like, repair-like, atrophy-like single cells, atrophy-like parabasal cell groups, ASC-US not otherwise specified, and small atypical parakeratotic cells. The document also discusses cases showing low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (LSIL) co-existing with ASC-US features.
Bethesda system for reporting thyroid cytologyariva zhagan
The document discusses the Bethesda System for Reporting Thyroid Cytopathology (BSRTC), which provides a standardized classification system for thyroid fine needle aspiration (FNA) results. The BSRTC aims to improve communication between clinicians by establishing uniform diagnostic terminology. It categorizes FNA results as non-diagnostic, benign, atypia of undetermined significance/follicular lesion of undetermined significance, follicular neoplasm/suspicious for follicular neoplasm, suspicious for malignancy, or malignant. The document outlines the criteria for each category and risk of malignancy. It notes recent enhancements in the 2017 version of BSRTC, including recalculated risk of malignancy and the
Uma Nahar Saikia presented an update on thyroid tumors based on changes between the 2004 and 2017 WHO classification books. Key points included refined definitions for follicular variant papillary carcinoma and non-invasive follicular thyroid neoplasm with papillary-like nuclear features. New immunohistochemistry markers and molecular testing provide additional diagnostic information. The 8th AJCC TNM staging system features changes to N and T categories as well as separate staging for those under 55 years old. IgG4-related Hashimoto's thyroiditis was also discussed as an emerging entity.
Correlation between cytology and histopathological examination of endometrium...drshameera
Endometrial aspiration cytology (EAC) was compared to histopathology as the gold standard in diagnosing endometrial lesions in patients with abnormal uterine bleeding. 100 patients underwent both EAC and dilatation and curettage. EAC results found 70 cases of benign endometrium, 18 cases of hyperplasia, and 12 cases of malignancy. These findings correlated highly with histopathology results, with EAC demonstrating 95.59% sensitivity for benign lesions, 87.5% sensitivity for hyperplasia, and 100% sensitivity for malignancy. The study concluded that EAC is an effective, useful, and minimally invasive procedure for evaluating endometrial pathology, especially in high-
This slide presentation summarizes a cytology case involving a 38-year-old female patient. A cervical smear shows atypical cells with dense, scanty cytoplasm and enlarged hyperchromatic nuclei throughout the smear. Background shows sheets of neutrophils, coccobacilli and hemorrhage. The specimen is categorized as an epithelial cell abnormality and interpreted as a high-grade squamous intra-epithelial lesion. Colposcopic examination is suggested. The presentation provides further details on cytology techniques, classifications of abnormal cervical cells, screening guidelines, and characteristics of low and high-grade squamous lesions.
The bethesda system for reporting thyroid cytopathologyIndira Shastry
The document describes the Bethesda System for Reporting Thyroid Cytopathology (BSRTC), which was introduced in 2007 to standardize the reporting of thyroid fine needle aspiration (FNA) results. The BSRTC recommends diagnostic categories with implied cancer risks and clinical management guidelines. It provides criteria for adequate samples and defines each diagnostic category, including non-diagnostic, benign, atypia of undetermined significance, follicular neoplasm, suspicious for malignancy, and malignant. The BSRTC aims to improve communication between cytopathologists and clinicians regarding thyroid FNA interpretations and patient management.
The document summarizes the recommendations from an October 2007 meeting at the National Cancer Institute to develop a uniform reporting system for thyroid fine needle aspiration biopsies. It outlines six diagnostic categories with implied cancer risks and descriptions. The categories include non-diagnostic or unsatisfactory, benign, atypia of undetermined significance or follicular lesion of undetermined significance, follicular neoplasm or suspicious for follicular neoplasm, suspicious for malignancy, and malignant. Criteria for each category are provided along with typical clinical management based on the cancer risk implication of each category.
The Paris System for Reporting Urinary CytologyRawa Muhsin
The Paris System for Reporting Urinary Cytology provides standardized diagnostic categories for urine cytology specimens. It divides results into negative for high-grade urothelial carcinoma, positive for high-grade urothelial carcinoma, atypical urothelial cells, and suspicious for high-grade urothelial carcinoma based on the number and features of abnormal cells seen. The system aims to determine whether high-grade urothelial carcinoma is present or not, as this has important implications for patient management and prognosis. Risk of malignancy increases from negative to atypical to suspicious to positive categories.
Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) have potential clinical applications as biomarkers in colorectal cancer. Studies have found CTCs correlate with disease stage but not other clinical factors. Detecting CTCs before and during treatment can independently predict progression-free and overall survival. While CTC detection provides prognostic information, methodology challenges remain around isolating, quantifying, and characterizing CTCs reproducibly. Further research could help validate CTCs against standard biomarkers and guide personalized therapy.
This document summarizes urine cytology and various urinary markers for detecting bladder cancer. Urine cytology is the gold standard but has low sensitivity of 40-62%. Newer urinary markers like BTA, ImmunoCyt, NMP-22, and UroVysion have higher sensitivities than cytology of 50-86%, but lower specificities and can be affected by benign conditions. No single marker currently has a sensitivity of 90%, which patients indicate is needed to replace cystoscopy. Therefore, the best approach is a combination of cystoscopy and urinary markers for non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer surveillance.
Primitive neuroectodermal tumor (PNET) is a highly malignant tumor composed of small round cells of neuroectodermal origin that affects soft tissue and bone. PNETs are classified into groups depending on location, with peripheral PNET (pPNET) occurring in soft tissue and bone outside the central nervous system. pPNET includes Ewing sarcoma and Askin tumor. Diagnosis involves ruling out other small round cell tumors through molecular cytogenetic studies showing translocation between chromosomes 11 and 22. PNET most commonly presents in adolescents and young adults with pain, swelling, and mass effect. Prognosis depends on tumor site, volume, and presence of metastasis. Treatment involves complete surgical resection when possible along with
An exophytic lesion of the vagina cytological findingsMarceloPerazzoli
This document reports on a case of primary malignant melanoma of the vagina identified through cytological examination. A 74-year-old woman presented with a prolapsed anterior vaginal wall and exophytic lesions. A direct smear showed malignant cells that were initially misdiagnosed as squamous cell carcinoma. Biopsy revealed the presence of melanin pigment indicating malignant melanoma. Primary melanoma of the vagina is rare, accounting for less than 3% of vaginal malignancies. Accurate cytological diagnosis is challenging due to the rarity of this cancer and lack of overt pigmentation in some cases.
The Bethesda System is a standardized reporting system used for Pap test results. It provides a structured format for reporting cervical and vaginal cytology diagnoses. The system includes sections for specimen type, adequacy, interpretation/result, and optional notes. Interpretation/result categories include negative for intraepithelial lesion or malignancy, epithelial cell abnormalities (such as atypical squamous cells, low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion, or high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion), and other malignant neoplasms. Specific cytological features are described for each category. The system aims to improve consistency and communication of Pap test results.
This document discusses several pitfalls in the diagnosis of follicular epithelial proliferations of the thyroid. It addresses challenges in distinguishing hyperplastic follicular lesions from follicular adenomas. It also discusses criteria for diagnosing well-differentiated thyroid carcinomas based on nuclear features for papillary thyroid carcinoma and capsular/vascular invasion for follicular thyroid carcinoma. The document further addresses definitions of capsular and vascular invasion, the significance of extrathyroidal extension, how to define dedifferentiation, and when ancillary tools should be used in diagnosis.
The document provides information on cervical cytology screening and the Bethesda System for reporting results. It describes the Papanicolaou staining technique and liquid-based cytology collection methods. The Bethesda System categories for specimen adequacy, interpretation, and epithelial cell abnormalities are outlined. Normal cervical cell types are defined. Reactive, infectious, and other non-neoplastic findings are described. Atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance, low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions, and high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions are defined. Adenocarcinoma in situ and adenocarcinoma are also summarized.
Presentation dr rahul seminar (2)[1387]rahulraj956
This document discusses the role of fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) in evaluating salivary gland neoplasms. It begins with an introduction noting that salivary gland FNAs present challenges due to the wide range of possible lesions. It then covers normal salivary gland morphology, indications and contraindications for FNAC, advantages, technical considerations, complications, and classification of salivary gland lesions according to the WHO. Specific benign and malignant lesions are discussed in detail, including characteristics on cytology and differential diagnoses. Imaging is also shown demonstrating features of various lesions. In summary, the document provides a comprehensive overview of utilizing FNAC to evaluate salivary gland masses.
This document discusses cancer of unknown primary (CUP), which refers to patients who present with metastatic cancer but the original primary site is unknown. It notes that for most patients, biopsy of an accessible metastatic site is needed to help pathologists identify potential primary sites through tissue architecture and immunohistochemistry. Extensive imaging is rarely useful to find the primary site; a careful history and targeted imaging based on risk factors is more appropriate. Treatment should not wait for a definitive primary diagnosis, and chemotherapy may help reduce tumor burden for some patients, though long term survival is rare for CUP.
Bethesda System for thyroid cytopathologyPrecky Gabuat
This document provides guidelines for classifying thyroid cytopathology samples based on The Bethesda System.
It defines what constitutes an adequate sample and discusses various benign and atypical findings. Samples are classified as nondiagnostic, benign, atypia of undetermined significance, follicular neoplasm, or suspicious for follicular neoplasm based on cellularity, architecture, nuclear features, and the presence of colloid or Hürthle cells. Special circumstances including inflammation, cyst fluid, or abundant colloid can also affect classification. Precise terminology is recommended to communicate cytopathology results.
CANCER of UNKNOWN PRIMARY (CUP), Dr BÙI ĐẮC CHÍhungnguyenthien
Cancer of unknown primary (CUP) refers to metastatic cancer that has spread to other parts of the body but the original primary site cannot be identified. CUP makes up approximately 2-6% of cancer cases. Conventional methods to identify the primary site include imaging scans, medical history, physical exams, and laboratory tests. Molecular profiling using techniques like immunohistochemistry, gene expression profiling, and next generation sequencing can identify predictive biomarkers and actionable targets in around 80% of CUP cases. Identifying the primary site can help determine the best treatment approach and predict outcomes. Gene expression profiling tests like the Pathwork Tissue of Origin test can determine the likely tissue of origin with 99% certainty when the highest similarity score is above
This document discusses methods for diagnosing cancer. Cancer is initially suspected based on symptoms and screening tests and is then confirmed through diagnostic tests. The main diagnostic methods discussed are radiological tests like x-rays and CT scans, cytological tests like fine needle aspiration cytology, histological tests like biopsies, frozen section analysis, hematological tests, immunohistochemistry, molecular diagnosis, and tumor markers. These methods provide information about the presence, type, and stage of cancer. Obtaining an accurate diagnosis often requires using multiple diagnostic methods and getting a second opinion from an expert.
The study of disease transmission
By and large, the frequency of disease is higher in men than in ladies and higher in industrialized areas and countries.
This document discusses diagnostic cytopathology and provides information on techniques used in cytopathology. It defines cytopathology as the study and diagnosis of diseases on the cellular level by interpreting cells that have exfoliated spontaneously or been obtained from organs/tissue. The document outlines sample collection methods, smear preparation techniques, fixation, staining methods, and the applications of cytopathology in identifying infections, cancers, and other diseases. It describes exfoliative and interventional cytology techniques such as fine needle aspiration cytology.
Accuracy and reliability_of_tzanck_test_compared_t (1)Eva Yustiana
This document compares the accuracy of the Tzanck test to histopathology for diagnosing basal cell carcinoma (BCC). The Tzanck test is a simple cytological examination that is faster and cheaper than histopathology, the gold standard. The study examined 26 patients clinically diagnosed with BCC using both tests. Histopathology confirmed BCC in 23 cases. The Tzanck test correctly identified BCC in 12 cases and ruled out the 3 non-BCC cases, but missed diagnosing BCC in 11 cases. The Tzanck test had a sensitivity of 52.2% and specificity of 100% compared to histopathology. While the Tzanck test can rapidly identify some BCC, it has
Evaluation of methods for cervical cancer screening Humphrey Misiri
Cancer is one of the leading causes of death in the world. Among women, cervical cancer) is one of the
deadly cancers in the world. Invasive cervical cancer is AIDS-defining since its presence means that the
patient has AIDS. Hetero-sexual activity is a risk factor of cervical cancer. As all cancers are, cervical cancer
is progressive and so can be prevented if detected in its early stages of development. Several laboratorybased diagnostic tests for screening women for cervical cancer exist. While these tests may be useful,
different tests may be preferred in different localities depending on the availability of resources. Given several
diagnostic tests, before any screening method is recommended for use, it is necessary to compare several
screening methods in order to identify a method which is cost-effective. In this work an attempt is made to
review several laboratory-based diagnostic methods and to explain the procedures for designing an
experiment for identifying a cost-effective method.
[Afr J Health Sci. 2014; 27(4):356-369
This document discusses biopsy principles and abdominal tumors in veterinary medicine. It provides guidelines for obtaining biopsy samples, including using the proper technique to procure enough tissue for an accurate diagnosis without increasing the risk of metastasis. Needle biopsy, incisional biopsy, and excisional biopsy are described as common methods. The role of the pathologist in interpreting biopsy results and potential sources of error are also outlined. For abdominal tumors, the document recommends evaluations like radiographs and ultrasound prior to exploration. It states that solitary masses should be explored for diagnosis and possible treatment, while diffuse disease is rarely helped by surgery alone. Factors like tumor stage, site and grade will impact therapy and prognosis.
The document discusses the cervix and cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN). Some key points:
1) The cervix contains two types of epithelium that meet at the squamocolumnar junction (SCJ), which shifts locations throughout life. The transformation zone (TZ) is the area at risk for developing pre-cancerous and cancerous lesions.
2) CIN is characterized by abnormal cell growth in the cervix and is graded from I to III based on severity. Left untreated, some CIN lesions can progress to cervical cancer over many years.
3) Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is required for cervical cancer but most infections clear on
Imaging techniques such as CT, MRI, PET, ultrasound, mammography and conventional radiology are used for cancer screening, detection, diagnosis, staging and monitoring treatment response. Biopsies involving fine needle aspiration, endoscopy or surgical removal of tissue samples allow histopathological examination of cells and tissue. Molecular testing techniques like immunohistochemistry, cytogenetics and tumor marker detection provide additional information on cancer prognosis and personalized treatment approaches. Together these diagnostic methods provide information on tumor location, size, spread and characteristics to inform cancer management.
Tumor markers are substances produced by tumor cells or the body's response to tumors that can be detected in blood, urine, or tissue. They can be used to screen for cancers, help diagnose cancer when the primary site is unknown, stage cancers, determine prognosis, and monitor treatment effectiveness. The most widely accepted tumor markers are prostate-specific antigen for prostate cancer screening and alpha-fetoprotein plus ultrasound for screening for hepatocellular carcinoma in endemic areas. Elevated levels of markers like gastrin and insulin are diagnostic for certain neuroendocrine tumors.
This document discusses tumor staging and biomarkers for oral cancer. It introduces the TNM staging system and its components for assessing tumor size, lymph node involvement, and metastasis. It also addresses limitations of staging and types of biomarkers that can be used, including commonly used ones like CD44, interleukin levels, and tissue polypeptide antigen. Biomarkers can help with screening, diagnosis, prognosis, and monitoring treatment response for oral cancer.
Breast cancer is the most common invasive cancer in women and the second leading cause of cancer death in women after lung cancer.
According to the American Cancer Society, more than 193,000 cases of breast cancer are diagnosed each year, with an estimated 40,000 deaths.
About 1% of these cancers occur in men.
This includes introduction its classification,etiology,clinical manifestations,diagnostic criteria,management.
The document discusses the surgical classification of maxillofacial tumors. It identifies two categories:
1. Tumors that do not require surgical removal, including medial rhomboid glossitis, non-complicating tori, fibrotic lymph nodes, nodules of hyperparathyroidism, benign melanoma, and pregnancy tumor.
2. Tumors that do not require pre-treatment incisional biopsy and can be removed through excisional biopsy, such as small sized tumors like fibroepithelial polyp, lipoma, pyogenic granuloma, denture fissuratum, and complicating tori whose diagnosis is self-evident.
1. The majority (95%) of primary bladder tumors originate from the bladder epithelium and are transitional cell carcinoma (90%). Squamous cell carcinoma (5%) and adenocarcinoma (1-2%) can also occur.
2. Risk factors for bladder cancer include occupational exposures like chemicals, smoking, and infections like Schistosomiasis.
3. Evaluation involves urine cytology, cystoscopy, imaging and biopsy. Treatment depends on tumor stage and grade, ranging from transurethral resection for non-muscle invasive tumors to radical cystectomy for muscle-invasive tumors.
Cervical carcinoma is a common cancer in women aged 35-45 years in developing countries. Nearly all forms are squamous cell carcinoma arising from infection with human papillomavirus. Risk factors include early age of first intercourse, multiple sex partners, smoking, and immunosuppression. Precancerous lesions are classified as CIN I-III based on severity of dysplasia. Early stage IA cancer is treated with local excision while stage IB-IIA receives radical hysterectomy with or without radiation. Locally advanced stage IIB-IVB is typically treated with concurrent chemoradiation. Five-year survival decreases with more advanced stage from 87-90% for IB-IIA to 14% for stage IV
This document discusses pathology of the female genital tract, focusing on cervicitis and carcinoma of the cervix. It describes the etiology, pathogenesis and progression of cervical carcinoma. Cervicitis is usually caused by bacterial or viral infections and presents with inflammation of the cervix. Cervical carcinoma is often associated with HPV infection and develops through premalignant stages of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. Regular Pap smear screening can detect cervical lesions early and reduce mortality from cervical cancer. The document outlines screening guidelines and pathological features of various cervical lesions, cancers and their staging.
This research article examines the incidence and consequences of unexpected malignancy or lesions following power morcellation during minimally invasive surgery for presumed uterine fibroids. The study analyzed 3013 laparoscopic myomectomies performed over 10 years. It found an unexpected diagnosis rate of 0.23%, including sarcomas in 0.10% of cases. One of the four patients who underwent staging surgery following diagnosis was found to have peritoneal dissemination and died from the disease. The risks of disseminating unexpected malignancy and poor long term outcomes are concerning. The article discusses the debate around continuing versus restricting power morcellation and the need for improved pre-operative diagnostic tools and patient counseling on alternative treatment options and risks.
This document provides an overview of premalignant diseases of the cervix. It defines the cervix and transformation zone, and discusses terminology like CIN (cervical intraepithelial neoplasia). CIN is classified into grades I-III depending on severity. Human papillomavirus infection is the main cause, and risk factors include smoking and multiple sexual partners. Screening via Pap smear aims to detect pre-cancerous changes early. Treatment options for CIN include excision or ablation, with follow up screening important to monitor for regression or recurrence.
Schizophrenia is a chronic mental disorder characterized by symptoms like delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized speech or behavior. It affects over 21 million people worldwide, with about 1.1% of the US population experiencing it. The onset typically occurs in early 20s for males and late 20s for females. It has genetic and environmental factors, with genetics playing a role in increased risk if a family member also has it. Symptoms include positive symptoms like hallucinations, negative symptoms like social withdrawal, and cognitive impairment. Diagnosis requires continuous symptoms for 6 months including at least two like delusions or hallucinations along with impaired functioning.
Malignant tumors can spread locally through direct invasion of surrounding tissues and through the lymphatic or blood vessels to distant sites (metastasis). The main routes of metastasis are: (1) Lymphatic spread, where cancer cells travel to nearby lymph nodes; (2) Hematogenous spread, where cancer cells travel through the bloodstream to organs like the lungs, liver, bones, and brain; (3) Spread through body cavities like the peritoneum or along epithelial surfaces in rare cases. Malignant tumors are distinguished from benign tumors by their ability to invade surrounding tissues and metastasize to distant organs.
The document discusses the pathogenesis of cancer from molecular, chemical, and physical perspectives. It explains that cancer arises from genetic mutations in cells, either inherited or induced, that cause abnormalities in genes controlling cell growth and division. Chemical carcinogens can initiate cancer through DNA damage from reactive compounds. They may act directly or require metabolic activation. Physical carcinogens like radiation and injury can also cause cancer by inducing mutations from DNA damage. Radiation carcinogenesis involves ultraviolet light and ionizing radiation damaging DNA through free radicals or direct alteration.
Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) occurs when stomach contents reflux into the esophagus, causing troublesome symptoms or complications. It is caused by a defective lower esophageal sphincter or failure of mucosal defense mechanisms in the esophagus. Common symptoms include heartburn and regurgitation. Complications include esophagitis, strictures, Barrett's esophagus, and esophageal cancer. Treatment involves lifestyle changes, antacids, H2 receptor antagonists, and proton pump inhibitors to reduce symptoms and prevent complications. Proton pump inhibitors are the most effective pharmacologic treatment.
Alcoholic liver disease is caused by overconsumption of alcohol which damages the liver. It ranges from fatty liver to alcoholic hepatitis and cirrhosis. Symptoms vary depending on the stage of disease. Diagnosis involves liver function tests, imaging and biopsy. Complications include portal hypertension, ascites, and hepatic encephalopathy. Treatment focuses on abstinence from alcohol, nutrition supplementation to address deficiencies, medications for complications, and liver transplantation in severe cases.
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
MATATAG CURRICULUM: ASSESSING THE READINESS OF ELEM. PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS I...NelTorrente
In this research, it concludes that while the readiness of teachers in Caloocan City to implement the MATATAG Curriculum is generally positive, targeted efforts in professional development, resource distribution, support networks, and comprehensive preparation can address the existing gaps and ensure successful curriculum implementation.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
Thinking of getting a dog? Be aware that breeds like Pit Bulls, Rottweilers, and German Shepherds can be loyal and dangerous. Proper training and socialization are crucial to preventing aggressive behaviors. Ensure safety by understanding their needs and always supervising interactions. Stay safe, and enjoy your furry friends!
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
2. DR.NIKHITHA VALLURI 2
DEFINITION :
A neoplasm or tumor is ‘a mass of tissue formed as a result of abnormal,
excessive, uncoordinated, autonomous and purposeless proliferation of cells even after cessation
of stimulus for growth which caused it’.
Neoplasms may be :
‘Benign’ - slow-growing and localised without causing much difficulty to the host, or
‘Malignant’ - proliferate rapidly, spread throughout the body and may eventually cause death of
the host.
The common term used for all malignant tumours is cancer.
Cancer = Karkinoma, Crab
Neoplasm = New Growth
Oncos = Tumor
3. DR.NIKHITHA VALLURI 3
All malignant cells arise from a transformation of a normal cell into an immortal cell
which growth uncontrolled.
Such transformation occurs when the genetic blueprint - the cell’s DNA - is damaged or
altered.
Every cell contain a series of genetic markers known as protooncogenes.
All tumours, benign as well as malignant, have 2 basic components:
• ‘Parenchyma’ comprised by proliferating tumour cells.
• ‘Supportive stroma’ composed of fibrous connective tissue and blood vessels.
It provides the framework on which the parenchymal tumour cells grow.
4. DR.NIKHITHA VALLURI 4
NOMENCLATURE :
The suffix ‘-oma’ is added to denote benign tumours.
Malignant tumours of epithelial origin are called carcinomas, while
malignant mesenchymal tumours are named sarcomas (sarcos = fleshy)
17. DR.NIKHITHA VALLURI 17
Histological Methods
These methods are most valuable in arriving at the accurate diagnosis.
The tissue must be fixed in 10% formalin for light microscopic examination and in
glutaraldehyde for electron microscopic studies.
Quick frozen section and hormonal analysis are carried out on fresh unfixed tissues.
Morphological features of benign tumours resemble those of normal tissue and,
while malignant tumours are identified by lack of differentiation in cancer cells termed
‘anaplasia’ or ‘cellular atypia’ and may invade as well as metastasise.
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For histological diagnosis the following methods of sampling is done:
Biopsy- biopsy is a surgical removal of small piece of tissue for microscopic
examination for the presence of cancer cell.
There are three ways tissues can be removed for Biopsy:-
• Endoscopy
• Needle biopsy
• Surgical biopsy
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Cytological Methods
Cytological methods for diagnosis consist of :
study of cells shed off into body cavities (exfoliative cytology) and
study of cells by putting a fine needle introduced under vacuum into the lesion (fine needle
aspiration cytology, FNAC).
i) Exfoliative cytology:
Cytologic smear (Papanicolaou or Pap smear) method was initially employed for detecting
dysplasia, carcinoma in situ and invasive carcinoma of the uterine cervix.
Also examination of sputum and bronchial washings; pleural, peritoneal,urine,
pericardial effusions; gastric secretions, and CSF.
The method is based on microscopic identification of the characteristics of malignant cells
which are incohesive and loose and are thus shed off or ‘exfoliated’ into the lumen.
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ii) Fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) :
The method consists of study of cells obtained by a fine needle introduced under vacuum into
the lesion, so called fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC).
The superficial masses can be aspirated under direct vision while deep-seated masses such as
intra-abdominal, pelvic organs and retroperitoneum are frequently investigated by ultrasound
(CT)-guided fine needle aspirations.
The smears are fixed in 95% ethanol by wet fixation, or may be air-dried unfixed.
FNAC has a diagnostic reliability between 80-97% but it must not be substituted for clinical
judgement or compete with an indicated histopathologic biopsy.
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Histochemistry and Cytochemistry
It help the pathologist in identifying the chemical
composition of cells, their constituents and their
products by special staining methods.
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Immunohistochemistry
This is an immunological method of recognising a cell by one or more of its specific
components in the cell membrane, cytoplasm or nucleus. These cell components combine
with specific antibodies on the formalin-fixed paraffin sections or cytological smears.
The complex of antigen-antibody on slide is made visible for light microscopic identification by
either fluorescent dyes (‘fluorochromes’) or by enzyme system (‘chromogens’).
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Tumour Markers (Biochemical Assays)
Tumour markers include: cell surface antigens (or oncofoetal antigens), cytoplasmic proteins,
enzymes, hormones and cancer antigens.
it can be used for prognostic and therapeutic purposes.