This is research methodology

1. Research Methodology
- BHASKAR H S

2. “A careful investigation or inquiry specially
through search for new facts in any branch
of knowledge.”
- The Oxford Advanced Learner’s
Research

3. Research?
 A careful investigation for new facts in any
branch of knowledge
 Redman and Mory: Research is a systematic
effort to gain new knowledge

4. Research?
 Clifford Woody: Research-
 defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis/objectives;
 collecting, organizing and evaluating data;
 making deductions and reaching conclusions;
 testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating
hypothesis/objectives

5. Why do research?
 Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits
 Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems
 Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work
 Desire to be of service to society
 Desire to get respectability
 Directives of government, employment conditions etc.

6.  Research is an endeavor to discover answers to
intellectual and practical problems through the
application of scientific method.
 Research is a systematized effort to gain new
knowledge.
 Research is a careful inquiry to discover new
information or relationships and to expand and to
verify existing knowledge.
 Research is the systematic process of collecting and
analyzing information in order to increase our
understanding of the phenomenon which we are
concerned or interested.
Meaning of Research

7.  Research Methodology is the way in which
research problems are solved systematically.
 Research Methodology is science of studying
how research is conducted scientifically.
 Research Methodology is the use of methods
that the researcher adopts for conducting the
research studies.
Meaning of Research
Methodology

8.  To gain familiarity with new insights into a
phenomenon
 To accurately portray the features of a particular
individual, group or a situation
 To analyses the frequency with which something
occurs or its association with something else.
 To examine the Hypothesis of a casual relationship
between two variables
Objectives of Research

9. 1. Originates with a question or problem
2. Requires clear articulation of a goal
3. Follows a specific plan or procedure
4. Often divides main problem into sub problems
5. Guided by specific hypothesis
6. Accepts certain critical assumptions
7. Requires collection and interpretation of data
8. Systematic and Logical
9. Empirical and Replicable
Features of Good
Research

10.  systematic
 logical
 empirical
 reductive
 replicable
Characteristics of Research

11. Systematic- All steps must be inter
related- one to another
Logical- Agreeing with the principles
of logic
Empirical-Conclusions should be
based on evidences/observations
Characteristics of Research

12. Objectivity- It must answer the
research questions
Replicable- reproducible
Transmittable
Quality control- Accurate
measurements
All well designed and conducted
research has potential application
Characteristics of Research

13. 1. Define Research Problem.
2. Review of Literature.
3. Formulate Hypotheses.
4. Preparing the Research Design.
5. Data Collection.
6. Data Analysis.
7. Interpretation and Report Writing.
7 Steps of Research
Process

15. 1
2
3
4
5

16.  Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a
crucial part of a research study.
 The techniques for the purpose involves the
undertaking of the following steps:
1. Statement of the problem in a general way
2. Understanding the nature of the problem
3. Surveying the available literature
4. Developing the ideas through discussions
5. Rephrasing the research problem into a working
proposition.
Step 1: Research
Problem

17.  Once the problem is formulated, the
researcher should undertake extensive
literature connected with the problem.
 Why Literature Review?
1. Assist in refining statement of the problem
2. Strengthening the argument of the selection of a
research topic (Justification)
3. It helps to get familiar with various types of
methodology that might be used in the study (Design)
Step 2 : Literature
Review

18.  Books : Text Books, Monographs, Edited Collections
 Journal Articles : Academic Journals, Conference Proceedings
 Indexing and Abstracting Journal Search Engines : Google Scholar
 Past Dissertations
 Vital Statistics : Census, Government Records, Surveillance System, Surveys
 International Organizations Documents : WHO, UNICEF
 Media : Newspaper, Magazines
 Internet
Sources of Literature
Review

19.  A hypothesis is a proposed explanation of r an
observable phenomenon which is capable of
being tested by scientific methods.
 For a researcher hypothesis is a formal
question that he intends to resolve.
 For example, consider a statement:
“Drug A is equally efficient as Drug B”
This is a hypothesis capable of being
objectively verified and tested.
 Hypothesis should be clear and precise, capable
of being tested, limited in scope, simple in
terms.
Step 3 : Formulate Hypotheses

20.  In the context of statistical analysis, we often about
null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis.
 Null Hypothesis is tested for possible rejection.
It is indicated by H0.
 Its rival hypothesis is called “Alternative
Hypothesis”. It is indicated by H1.
 A null hypothesis represents the hypothesis we are
trying to reject, and alternative hypothesis
represents all other possibilities or wishes to
prove.
Null and Alternative
Hypotheses

21.  A research design is the arrangement for
collection and analysis of data in an manner
that aims to combine relevance to the research
purpose with economy in procedure.
 It is an outline of what researcher will do from
writing the hypothesis and its operational
implications to the final analysis of data.
 Research Design includes blueprint for the
collection, measurement and analysis of data.
Step 4 : Research Design

22.  The data task of data collection begins after a research
problem has been defined and research design chalked
out.
 There are two types of data:
 1. PRIMARY DATA are those which are collected a fresh
and for the first time and therefore to be original in
character. Data collection methods are Observation,
Personal Interview, Questionnaire, Case Study Method,
Survey Method, etc.
2. SECONDARY DATA are those which have been
collected by someone else and which have already been
passed through the statistical process.
Step 5 : Data Collection

23.  Data Analysis is important to answer the
research questions and to help determine the
trends and relationships among the variables.
 Data Analysis is a procedure of editing, coding
and tabulating data.
Step 6 : Data Analysis

24.  Before Data Collection, the researcher should
accomplish the following:
1. Determine the method of data analysis
2. Determine how to process the data
3. Consult a statistician
4. Prepare dummy tables
 After Data Collection :
1. Process the data
2. Prepare tables and graphs
3. Analyse and interpret findings
4. Consult again the statistician
5. Prepare for editing
6. Prepare for presentation
Steps in Data Analysis

25.  Interpretation refers to the task of drawing
inferences from the collected facts after an
analytical and experimental study.
 Interpretation is the process of making in the
sense of numerical data that has been collected,
analyzed and presented.
Techniques of Interpretation:
1. Explanations
2. Extraneous Information
3. Guidance
4. Relevant Factors
Step 7 : Interpretation and
Report Writing

26.  A Research Report is a document giving
summarized and interpretative information of
research done based on factual data, opinions
and about procedure used by the individual or
group.
 A Research Report is a recorded data prepared
by researchers after analyzing information
gathered by conducting organized research.
 A Research Report generally, but not always
have actionable recommendations such as
investment ideas that investors can act upon,
recommendations on any act or law on which
government can take action, policy decisions
that are practically applicable, etc.
Research Report

27.  Preliminary Pages
 Main Text
A. Introduction
B. Statement of findings and recommendations
C. Results
D. Implications of the results
E. Summary
 End Matter
Layout of Research Report

28. Types of Research
 Pure and Applied Research
 Exploratory or Formulative Research
 Descriptive Research
 Diagnostic Study
 Evaluation Studies
 Action Research
 Experimental Research
 Analytical study or statistical Method
 Historical Research
 Surveys
 Case Study

29. Pure and Applied Research
Pure
it is the study of search of knowledge.
Applied
It is the study of finding solution to a
problem.

30. Purpose of Pure and Applied Research
Pure
 It can contribute new facts
 It can put theory to the rest
 It may aid in conceptual clarification
 It may integrate previously existing theories.
Applied
 It offers solutions to many practical problems.
 To find the critical factors in a practical
problem.

31. Exploratory or Formulative Research
Exploratory
Exploratory research is preliminary study
of an unfamiliar problem about which the
researcher has little or no knowledge.

32. Purpose
To Generate new ideas
To increase the researcher’s familiarity
with the problem
To Make a precise formulation of the
problem
To gather information for clarifying
concepts
To determine whether it is feasible to
attempt the study.

33. Descriptive Research
 Descriptive study is a fact- finding
investigation with adequate
interpretation.
 It is the simplest type of research.
 It is designed to gather descriptive
information and provides information for
formulating more sophisticated studies
 Data are collected using observation,
interview and mail questionnaire.

34. Purpose
 It can focus directly on a theoretical point.
 It can highlight important methodological
aspects of data collection and interpretation.
 Data obtained in a research may be useful for
prediction about areas of social life outside in
the boundaries of research.
 Descriptive studies are valuable in providing
facts needed for planning social action
programmes.

35. Diagnostic Study
 It is directed towards discovering what is
happening, why is it happening and what can
be done about.
 It aims at identifying the causes of a problem
and the possible solutions for it.

36. Purpose
This study may also be concerned with
discovering and testing whether
certain variables are associated.
To determine the frequency with
which something occurs or with which
it is associated with something else.

37. Evaluation Studies
It is one type of applied research.
It is made for assessing the effectiveness of
social or economic programmes
implemented or for assessing the impact of
developmental projects area.
The determination of the results attained
by some activity designed to accomplish
some valued goal or objectives.

38. Purpose
It is directed to assess or appraise the
quality and quantity of an activity and
its performance.
To specify its attributes and conditions
required for its success.

39. Action Research
Researcher attempts to study action.
E.g. Eradication of Malariya, Maritime
Navigation
Action research is a reflective process of
progressive problem solving led by
individuals working with others in
teams or as part of a "community of
practice" to improve the way they
address issues and solve problems

40. Purpose
 A baseline survey of the pre-action situation
 A feasibility study of the proposed action
programme
 Planning and launching the programme
 Concurrent evaluation of the programme
 Making modifications and changes in the
programme.

41. Experimental Research
Experimental research is commonly
used in sciences such as sociology and
psychology, physics, chemistry,
biology and medicine etc.
It is a systematic and scientific
approach to research in which the
researcher manipulates one or more
variables, and controls and measures
any change in other variables.

42. Purpose
Experiments are conducted to be able
to predict phenomenons.
To maintain control over all factors
A blueprint of the procedure that
enables the researcher to test his
hypothesis

43. Analytical Study
Analytical study is a system of
procedures and techniques of analysis
applied to quantitative data.
A system of mathematical models or
statistical techniques applicable to
numerical data.
Ex. Scientometrics

44. Purpose
It aims at testing hypothesis and
specifying and interpreting relationship.
It concentrates on analyzing data in
depth and examining relationships from
various angles by bringing in as many
relevant variables as possible in the
analysis plan.

45. Historical Research
The systematic collection and evaluation
of data related to past occurrences in
order to describe causes, effects, and
trends of those events that may help
explain present events and anticipate
future events.
Data is often archival-including
newspaper clippings, photographs, etc.-
and may include interviews.

46. Purpose
 To draw explanations and generalizations from
the past trends in order to understand the
present and to anticipate the future.
 It enables us to grasp our relationship with the
past and to plan more intelligently for the future.
 The past contains the key to the present and the
past and the present influences the future.
 It helps us in visualizing the society as a dynamic
organism and its structures and functions as
evolving, steadily growing and undergoing
change and transformation.

47. Survey Research
 Survey research is one of the most
important areas of measurement in
applied social research. The broad area of
survey research encompasses any
measurement procedures that involve
asking questions of respondents. A
"survey" can be anything form a short
paper-and-pencil feedback form to an
intensive one-on-one in-depth interview.

48. Purpose
 It is always conducted in a natural setting.
 It seeks responses directly from the
respondents.
 It can cover a very large population
 A survey may involve an extensive study
or an intensive study.
 A survey covers a definite geographical
area, a city, district, state

49. Case Study
 A case study is a research methodology
common in social science.
 It is based on an in-depth investigation of
a single individual, group, or event to
explore causation in order to find
underlying principles

50. Purpose
 To examine limited number of variables
 case study methods involve an in-depth,
longitudinal examination of a single
instance or event.
 It provides a systematic way of looking at
events, collecting data, analyzing
information, and reporting the results

51. Field research
 Field research has traditionally been
thought different from methods of
research conducted in a laboratory or
academic setting.
Purpose
 The advantages of field research are that
people are closer to real world conditions
and design the research in the best way to
discover the particular information
required.

52. Analysis of data
 By analysis we mean the computation of certain indices
or measures along with searching for patterns of
relationship that exist among the data groups.
 Analysis may, therefore, be categorised as descriptive
analysis and inferential analysis (Inferential analysis is
often known as statistical analysis).
 “Descriptive analysis is largely the study of distributions
of one variable.” this sort of analysis may be in respect
of one variable (described as unidimensional analysis),
or in respect of two variables (described as bivariate
analysis) or in respect of more than two variables
(described as multivariate analysis).

53.  Correlation analysis studies the joint variation of two or more
variables for determining the amount of correlation between two
or more variables.
 Causal analysis is concerned with the study of how one or more
variables affect changes in another variable. It is thus a study of
functional relationships existing between two or more variables.
This analysis can be termed as regression analysis.
 Usually the following analyses are involved when we make a
reference of multivariate analysis:
 (a) Multiple regression analysis: This analysis is adopted when the
researcher has one dependent variable which is presumed to be a
function of two or more independent variables.
 (b) Multiple discriminant analysis: This analysis is appropriate when
the researcher has a single dependent variable that cannot be measured,
but can be classified into two or more groups on the basis of some
attribute.

54.  (c) Multivariate analysis of variance (or multi-ANOVA):
This analysis is an extension of twoway ANOVA, wherein
the ratio of among group variance to within group variance
is worked out on a set of variables.
 (d) Canonical analysis: This analysis can be used in case of
both measurable and non-measurable variables for the
purpose of simultaneously predicting a set of dependent
variables from their joint covariance with a set of
independent variables.
 Inferential analysis is concerned with the various tests
of significance for testing hypotheses in order to
determine with what validity data can be said to
indicate some conclusion or conclusions. It is mainly
on the basis of inferential analysis that the task of
interpretation (i.e., the task of drawing inferences and
conclusions) is performed.

55. SELECTING / CHOOSING
THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
 The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully
selected. The task is a difficult one, although it may not appear to
be so. Help may be taken from a research guide in this
connection.
 A research guide can at the most only help a researcher choose a
subject. However, the following points may be observed by a
researcher in selecting a research problem or a subject for
research:
 (i) Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it
will be a difficult task to throw any new light in such a case.
 (ii) Controversial subject should not become the choice of an
average researcher.

56.  (iii) Too narrow or too vague problems should be
avoided.
 (iv) The subject selected for research should be
familiar and feasible so that the related research
material or sources of research are within one’s
reach. A researcher should contact an expert who is
already engaged in research. He may as well read
articles published in current literature available on
the subject and may think how the techniques and
ideas discussed therein might be applied to the
solution of other problems. He may discuss with
others what he has in mind concerning a problem.
In this way he should make all possible efforts in
selecting a problem.

57.  (v) The importance of the subject, the qualifications
and the training of a researcher, the costs involved, the
time factor are few other criteria that must also be
considered in selecting a problem. In other words,
before the final selection of a problem is done, a
researcher must ask himself the following questions:
 (a) Whether he is well equipped in terms of his background to
carry out the research?
 (b) Whether the study falls within the budget he can afford?
 (c) Whether the necessary cooperation can be obtained from
those who must participate in research as subjects?
 If the answers to all these questions are in the
affirmative, one may become sure so far as the
practicability of the study is concerned.

58.  (vi) The selection of a problem must be preceded
by a preliminary study. This may not be necessary
when the problem requires the conduct of a
research closely similar to one that has already been
done. But when the field of inquiry is relatively
new and does not have available a set of well
developed techniques, a brief feasibility study must
always be undertaken.

59. Extensive literature REVIEW
 Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be
written down. It is compulsory for a research worker writing a
thesis for a Ph.D. degree to write a synopsis of the topic and
submit it to the necessary Committee.
 At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive
literature survey connected with the problem. For this purpose,
the abstracting and indexing journals and published or
unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to.
 Academic journals, conference proceedings, government
reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of
the problem.
 In this process, it should be remembered that one source will
lead to another.
 The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand
should be carefully studied.

60. What Is a Survey?
Survey is a means to get a prompt and accurate
flow of information on preferences, needs, and
behavior. It is in response to this critical need
for information on the part of the government,
business, and social institutions that so much
reliance is placed on surveys.
"Survey" is used most often to describe a
method of gathering information from a
sample of individuals. This "sample" is usually
just a fraction of the population being
studied.

61. For example,
A sample of voters is questioned in advance
of an election to determine how the public
perceives the candidates
A manufacturer does a survey of the potential
market before introducing a new product
A government entity commissions a survey to
gather the factual information it needs to
evaluate existing legislation or to draft
proposed new legislation.

62. Census v/s Survey
The sample is not selected haphazardly or
only from persons who volunteer to
participate. It is scientifically chosen so
that each person in the population will
have a measurable chance of selection.

63. How Large Must The Sample Size Be?
The sample size required for a survey partly
depends on the statistical quality needed for
survey findings
Much depends on the professional and financial
resources available.
For example, the well-known national polls
frequently use samples of about 1,000 persons to
get reasonable information about national
attitudes and opinions

64. Who Conducts Surveys?
Major TV networks rely on surveys to tell
them how many and what type of people are
watching their programs
Auto manufacturers use surveys to find out
how satisfied people are with their cars

65. The RBI/Department of Economic Affairs conducts a
survey each month to obtain information on
employment and unemployment in the nation
Local transportation authorities conduct surveys to
acquire information on commuting and travel habits
Magazine and trade journals use surveys to find out
what their subscribers are reading
Surveys are conducted to ascertain who uses our
national parks and other recreation facilities.

66. What Are Some Common Survey Methods?
Personal Interviews
in a respondent's home or office are much more
expensive than mail or telephone surveys. They may be
necessary, however, especially when complex
information is to be collected.
Mail surveys
can be relatively low in cost. As with any other survey,
problems exist in their use when insufficient attention
is given to getting high levels of cooperation. Mail
surveys can be most effective when directed at
particular groups, such as subscribers to a specialized
magazine or members of a professional association.

67. Telephone interviews
Is an efficient method of collecting some types of
data and are being increasingly used. They lend
themselves particularly well to situations where
timeliness is a factor and the length of the survey is
limited.
Some surveys combine various methods. For
instance, a survey worker may use the
telephone to "screen" or locate eligible
respondents (e.g., to locate older individuals
eligible for Medicare) and then make
appointments for an in-person interview.

68. The recommended policy for survey
organizations to safeguard such confidentiality
includes
Using only number codes to link the respondent
to a questionnaire and storing the name-to-code
linkage information separately from the
questionnaires
Refusing to give the names and addresses of
survey respondents to anyone outside the survey
organization, including clients

69. Destroying questionnaires and identifying
information about respondents after the responses
have been entered into the computer
Omitting the names and addresses of survey
respondents from computer files used for analysis
Presenting statistical tabulations by broad enough
categories so that individual respondents cannot
be singled out

70.  Plan Ahead
 Set aside time to prepare questions
 Identify Goals
 Clearly identify the information that you want to obtain from
the survey
 Provide Instruction
 Explain why you are conducting the survey and provide any
additional instructions that they will need to complete the
questionnaire.
 Length of Survey/Questionnaire
 short (1-2 pages) and simple questionnaires usually attract
higher response rates than long (4 + pages) and complex
ones.
How do I organize a survey?

71. Conditions for good Survey
Sample size is significant
Sample is representative of the population
Principles of good estimation is followed
(unbiased, efficient, consistent, sufficient)
All respondents are sincere in their responses
Biases in the responses get normalized due to
proper sampling

72. Suitability of Survey Method
Perceptions measurement of target audience
Large target audience with similar concerns
Quantify short-term phenomena
Estimation of demand for low-value products
Estimation of service related parameters

73. Research synthesis
 What is known from what has been done?
 NOT
 What has been done?

74. Many different types of research synthesis
 Systematic review
 Meta-ethnography (qualitative)
 Meta-analysis (quantitative)

75. What is research synthesis?
 A comprehensive review that looks for, and
evaluates, existing research evidence.
 NOT
 “Traditional” literature review

76. Characteristics
Rigorous methods
A “scientific” methodology
Replicable / accountable / updateable
Minimise bias and error
Answer to focussed question(s)

77. Why useful?
 Balanced inference on best available
evidence
 NOT
 Description of everything on the subject

78. Quantitative systematic reviews
 Well-established
 Well-funded
 National and international collaborations
 Associated with RCTs
 Associated with intervention research i.e.: “What
works”?
 A cornerstone of evidence-based practice and policy

79. Research synthesis: 5 steps
1. Decide what question(s) you are trying to
answer
2. Identify a protocol
 What evidence are you prepared to include?
3. Find all of the relevant evidence
 Data mapping an output in its own right?
 Identify major knowledge gaps
4. Appraise the quality of the evidence
5. Decide what the evidence means

80.  Qualitative research as postscript
 “insidious discrimination”
 Via
 “institutionalised quantitativism”
Booth (2001)
 Meta-ethnography
 Education
 Nursing

81. Are qualitative research (data) appropriate for
research synthesis?
 Unlikely to use RCT design
 Less likely to have been used as methodology for
intervention research
 Where to search for evidence?
 “qualitative research clearly has a role…but it is
unclear how systematic reviews of qualitative
research can contribute…..”

82. 5 steps revisited: qualitative evidence
1. Decide what question you are trying to answer
2. Identify a protocol
 What evidence are you prepared to include?
3. Find all of the relevant evidence
 Likely to involve lots of hand searching
 Language
 Qualitative research tends to be less well indexed than
quantitative research
4. Appraise the quality of the evidence
 Different or same as for quantitative evidence?
5. Decide what the evidence means

83.  Uniqueness of the ethnographic method is reflexivity
 Richness of insight: an emphasis on contradictory cases
 Existence of multiple views/ perspectives
Alternative interpretations
Potentially competing explanations

84.  Research synthesis very limited in forms of
evidence that are incorporated
 Need robust ways of incorporating qualitative
evidence into research synthesis
 A more holistic view of what constitutes
“evidence”

85. Alternatively….
 Policy issues not the business of academic researchers
Try writing that on a funding proposal……
 Role of an academic researcher is not to seek common ground
 Post-modernity
Absolute evidence does not exist

86. Synthesis of qualitative research
 Bayesian approaches?
 Use qualitative evidence to identify variables for synthesis then
attach weights to strength of quantitative evidence associated
with these variables
 A proliferation of checklists

87.  Meta-ethnography a sign of “methodological maturity”?
 Not a call for uncritical translation of quantitative research synthesis
approaches
 Stand-alone or integrated
Quantitative supremacy?

88. Critical Analysis
 Analysing critically is a process of
deconstructing what you read, write
and listen to in a rational and logical
manner.
 It requires you to move beyond
describing and analysing to
evaluating, criticising and postulating
on what you process.

89.  However, while you are
encouraged to critique, your
response always has to be
informed and well-grounded in
research and wide reading.
Critical analysis moves beyond
simple description of a
particular topic into the realms
of analysis and evaluation, as
visualised in the diagram

91.  As shown in the diagram,
description and simple
analysis must precede
evaluation, which is where
critical analysis lies.
 With your evaluative skills
you must be able to ask
yourself what all the
description and analysis
actually means, what it says
about the author or topic and
what its implications are.

92.  Critical analysis is
associated with a "deep
approach" to your learning,
which means that you relate
new knowledge to what you
already know.
 It also requires the
examination of theoretical
concepts and ideas; comparing
and contrasting issues and
perspectives to challenge your
own understandings and to
speculate and seek out

93.  Furthermore, you must be able to
distinguish between what is
evidence and what is an argument.
 This involves questioning
assumptions, recognising
generalisations, and identifying
bias in what you see, read and
hear.
 Thinking critically helps you to
uncover links across large and
diverse bodies of knowledge
enabling you to synthesise your
own informed ideas.

94. Questions to ask when critically
analysing information
• What do I already know?
• What do I need to work out?
• Is this fact or opinion?
• What evidence do they use to back their
claim?
• What are the stated and unstated
assumptions in this information?
• Are there other ways we can think about
this?
• Is it convincing and relevant?

95. Why is it so important?
 In Research it is essential to think
critically as it allows you to
understand and analyse the evidence,
ideas and claims within your
particular field of study.
 Critical analysis allows you to have
greater clarity on the issues and
information you process.
 Academic disciplines are kept alive
through constant reflection, debate
and refinement of ideas.
 Critical analysis is thus crucial to
the survival and renewal of all
fields of enquiry.

96. Ethics?
 Study and application of moral standards
 Basic moral principles involve:
Focus on the well-being of others
Transcending self-interest and personal
goals
Universal truths, constants
Impartiality

97. Ethical Code
 Code of conduct
 Accepted rules and regulations
 Psychologists follow APA’s code, but most fields of science have a
similar code
 Personal and organizational codes may conflict
 You should strive to focus on the moral principles

98. Utilitarianism
 Ethical behavior if positive outcomes >
negative ones
Ends justify the means
 For psychologists and social science
researchers:
Results should benefit others (more
than the study process will harm
subjects)
Best possible methods are being used
for data collection

99. Utilitarianism
 Advantages
 Rationale for temporary discomfort in research
 Common sense view on morality of research
 Disadvantages
 What are the true impacts of a study?
 What is the cost of discomfort to participants?
 What are true benefits?

100. Principle of Rights
 Emphasizes universal privilege
 Highlights the ethicalness of intentions
 Categorical imperative: never treat
humanity as a means, but also as an end
 Basis for APA ethics – ensuring basic rights

101. Principle of Rights
 Advantages
Research procedures must respect
dignity of participants
All people are to be treated as equal
 Disadvantages
Conflicting rights of individuals
Perhaps too absolutist

102. APA Ethics
 Need for a code by late 1940s:
 Following WWII, U.S. nuclear experiments, Tuskegee
Institute experiments, others…
 APA’s ethical standards (1970s)
 Eventually linked with creation of IRBs through the
National Research Act (1974)

103. Developing the APA Code of Ethics
 First code  1953
 Hobbs committee
 Critical incidents procedure
 Most recent revision (2002)
 2002 revision includes 10 general
categories of ethical issues
 5 general principles + 89 specific standards

104. The APA Code of Ethics (cont’d)
Five general principles of the APA code:
1) Beneficence and non-malfeasance
 Constantly weigh costs & benefits; produce greatest good
2) Fidelity and responsibility
 Constantly aware of responsibility to society
3) Integrity
 Scrupulously honest
4) Justice
 Fair treatment
5) Respect for people’s rights and dignity
 Safeguard welfare, protect rights

105. Seeking IRB Approval
 Complexity of process depends on
complexity and risks of the study
 ALL research with humans (and animals)
must:
use valid methods
follow legal/ethical standards
be IRB approved

106. Seeking IRB Approval
 Project must meet responsibility
and qualification criteria
Responsible for welfare/dignity
of participants
Qualified to do the research
(students with supervision OK)

107. Seeking IRB Approval
 With humans, voluntary implied consent
required
 Consent forms must:
Be descriptive and clear
Explain confidentiality/anonymity
procedures
Provide participants with stated rights
and protections inherent in the study

108. Special Issues
 Young participants
If under 18*, or disabled - the guardian
must give consent
 Video/audio recording
Need consent and confidentiality promises
 Deception
By omission or commission requires
debriefing + special conditions

109. Debriefing
 Telling participants about the study
 Helps them understand the importance of
their involvement in research
 Required if deception is used
 Often left out, but very important

110. Thank
You.