“Any living organism supplying plant nutrients directly or indirectly is regarded as biofertilizer. They are not synthetically manufactured in factory.”
Cyanobacteria as a Biofertilizer (BY- Ayushi).pptxAyushiKardam
Cyanobacteria, also known as “blue-green algae”.
They are aquatic and photosynthetic, that is, they live in the water, and can manufacture their own food. Because they are bacteria, they are quite small and usually unicellular, though they often grow in colonies large enough to see.
They are the most abundant group of organisms on the earth. They are autotrophic and found in a diverse environment, especially in the marine and freshwater.
Cyanobacteria as a Biofertilizer (BY- Ayushi).pptxAyushiKardam
Cyanobacteria, also known as “blue-green algae”.
They are aquatic and photosynthetic, that is, they live in the water, and can manufacture their own food. Because they are bacteria, they are quite small and usually unicellular, though they often grow in colonies large enough to see.
They are the most abundant group of organisms on the earth. They are autotrophic and found in a diverse environment, especially in the marine and freshwater.
he rhizosphere is the narrow region of soil or substrate that is directly influenced by root secretions and associated soil microorganisms known as the root microbiome.
The phyllosphere is a term used in microbiology to refer to the total above-ground portions of plants as habitat for microorganisms.
he rhizosphere is the narrow region of soil or substrate that is directly influenced by root secretions and associated soil microorganisms known as the root microbiome.
The phyllosphere is a term used in microbiology to refer to the total above-ground portions of plants as habitat for microorganisms.
Biofertilizer are microorganisms that help plants to grow by increasing the quantity of nutrients. they defined as preparations containing living cells or latent cells of efficient strains of microorganisms that help crop plants for the uptake of nutrients by their interactions in the rhizosphere.
What is the distinction between fertiliser and manure.pdfnayanaNMH
Continue reading to learn the distinction between manure and fertiliser. Check out this guide to the various types of fertiliser and manure, as well as their benefits.
Farmers work hard to improve soil fertility in order to increase crop yield. This is accomplished by incorporating manure and fertiliser into the soil. When we talk about manure, we’re referring to the organic matter formed by the decomposition of plant and animal waste, such as cow dung. Fertilizer, on the other hand, is a type of chemical that can be applied to the soil to increase its nutrient content. If you want to farm, you should understand how to improve soil fertility.
Biofertilizers- Classes, TypesRhizobium ,Azobacter (Mechanism of action of biofertilizer, Methods of biofertilizer inoculation, advantages and disadvantages of biofertilizer)Classification of Nutraceuticals.
Table of content
Biofertilizer
Classes of Biofertilizers
Types of Biofertilizers
Mechanism of Action of Rhizobium and Azotobacter
Methods of inoculation
Advantages of Biofertilizers
Disadvantages of Biofertilizers
Classification of Nutraceuticals
Traditional nutraceuticals
Non-traditional nutraceuticals
Manufacturing of Vermicompost and Organic Manure. Profitable Investment in Organic Natural Plant Nutrient Industry.
Vermicompost
Vermicompost is the product of the decomposition process using various species of worms, usually red wigglers, white worms, and other earthworms, to create a mixture of decomposing vegetable or food waste, bedding materials, and vermicast. Vermicast is the end-product of the breakdown of organic matter by earthworms. Vermicomposting is a type of composting in which certain species of earthworms are used to enhance the process of organic waste conversion and produce a better end-product.
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Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
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1. 1
Bio-fertilizers
Introduction:
Fertilizers - The fertilizers are used to improve the fertility of the land using biological wastes, hence
the term biofertilizers, and biological wastes do not contain any chemicals which are detrimental to
the livingsoil.
A Bio fertilizer is also called also bio-fertilizer.
The name itself is self explanatory; Biofertilizers are the substances which make use
of microorganisms to fertile the soil.
These fertilizers are not harmful to crops or other plants like the chemical fertilizers.
They are actually taken from the animal wastes along with the microbial mixtures.
Microorganisms are used to increase the level of nutrients in the plants.
They let the plants grow in a healthy environment.
They are also environment friendly and do not cause the pollution of any sort.
Use of biofertilizers in the soil, makes the plants healthy as well as protect them
from getting any diseases.
“Any living organism supplying plant nutrients directly or indirectly is regarded as
biofertilizer. They are not synthetically manufactured in factory.”
Many organisms with a potentiality to supply plant nutrients - have been recognised. Use of
biofertilizers has many advantages.
They are:
Biofertilizers are eco-friendly and do not cause pollution of air and water.
They are more cost-effective than chemical fertilizers.
Biofertilizers, besides supplying plant nutrients, build up the inherent capacity of soil
to produce, retain and supply plant nutrients on sustainable basis.
Biofertilizers need not be carried over long distances.
Biofertilizers supply many micro nutrients like zinc, boron, molybdenum, sulphur,
iron and calcium besides major nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.
But chemical fertilizers generally supply only one or two nutrients at a time.
They prevent soil erosion and loss of nutrients by leaching.
Bio-fertilizers add nutrients through the natural processes of nitrogen fixation,
solubilizing phosphorus, and stimulating plant growth through the synthesis of
growth-promoting substances.
Bio-fertilizers can be expected to reduce the use of chemical fertilizers and
pesticides.
2. 2
The microorganisms in bio-fertilizers restore the soil's natural nutrient cycle and
build soil organic matter.
Through the use of bio-fertilizers, healthy plants can be grown, while enhancing the
sustainability and the health of the soil. Since they play several roles, a preferred
scientific term for such beneficial bacteria is "plant-growth promoting
rhizobacteria" (PGPR). Therefore, they are extremely advantageous in enriching soil
fertility and fulfilling plant nutrient requirements by supplying the organic nutrients
through microorganism and their byproducts. Hence, bio-fertilizers do not contain
any chemicals which are harmful to the living soil.
Types of Biofertilizers:-
1. Nitrogen Biofertilizers:- This type of biofertilizers helps the agriculturists to
determine the nitrogen level in the soil. Nitrogen is a necessary component which is
used for the growth of the plant. Plants need a limited amount of nitrogen for their
growth. The type of the crops also determines the level f nitrogen. Some crops need
more nitrogen for their growth while some crops need fewer amounts. The type of
the soil also determines that which type of biofertilizers is needed for this crop. Fr
example, Azotobacteria is used for the non legume crops; Rhizobium is needed for
the legume crops. Similarly blue green algae are needed to grow rice while
Acetobacter is used to grow sugarcane. It means almost all the crops need different
types of biofertilizers depending on their needs.
2. Phosphorus biofertilizers:- Phosphorus biofertilizers are used to determine the
phosphorus level in the soil. The need of phosphorus for the plant growth is also
limited. Phosphorus biofertilizers make the soil get the required amount of
phosphorus. It is not necessary that a particular phosphorus biofertilizers is used for
a particular type of crop. They can be used for any types of the crops for example;
Acetobacter, Rhizobium and other biofertilizers can use phosphotika for any crop
type.
3. Compost Biofertilizers:- Compost biofertilizers are those which make use of the
animal dung to enrich the soil with useful microorganisms and nutrients. To convert
the animals waste into a biofertilizers, the microorganisms like abcteria undergo
biological processes and help in breaking down the waste. Cellulytic fungal culture
and Azetobacter cultures can be used for the compost biofertilizers.
Galaxy of Biofertilizers:
3. 3
Phospho: It releases insoluble phosphorus in soil and fix this phosphorus in clay
minerals which is of great significance in agriculture.
Rhizo: Rhizo Bacterial plays a very important role in agriculture by inducing nitrogen
fixings nodules on the root of legumes such as peas,beans clove and alfalfa.
Azotobactor: Atmosphere contains 78% nitrogen which is a very important nutrient
for plant growth. Azotobactor fixes the atmospheric nitrogen in the soil and make it
available to the plants. It protects the roots from other pathogens present in the soil.
Trichoderma: It is a non- pathogenic and eco-friendly product. The product is
antagonistic hyper parasitic against different pathogens in the field and economically
well established biocontrol agent.
Azolla-Anabena symbiosis: Azolla is a small, eukaryotic, aquatic fern having global
distribution.Prokaryotic blue green algae Anabena azolla resides in its leaves as a
symbiont. Azolla is an alternative nitrogen source. This association has gained wide
interest because of its potential use as an alternative to chemical fertilizers.
Composter: (Decomposing Culture): Composter breaks down any organic matter
such as dead plants farm yard waste, cattle waste etc. thereby increasing the soil
productivity.
Tricho-Card: Trichogramma is an efficient destroyer of eggs of many leaf and flower
eaters, stems, fruit, shoot borers etc. It can be used in a variety of crops as well as in
horticultural and ornamental plants,such as sugarcane, cotton, brinjal, tomato, corn,
jawar, vegetables, citrus, paddy apple etc.
Vermi Compost: It is 100% pure eco-friendly organic fertilizer. This organic fertilizer
has nitrogen phosphorus, potassium, organic carbon, sulphur, hormones, vitamins,
enzymes and antibiotics which helps to improve the quality and quantity of yield. It is
observed that due to continuous misuse of chemical fertiliser soil losses its fertility
and gets salty day by day. To overcome such problems natural farming is the only
remedy and Vermi compost is the best solution.
Biocompost: It is eco-friendly organic fertilizer which is prepared from the sugar
industry waste material which is decomposed and enriched of with various plants
and human friendly bacteria and fungi. Biocompost consists of nitrogen, phosphate
solubilizing bacteria and various useful fungi like decomposing fungi, trichoderma
viridea which protects the plants from various soil borne disease and also help to
increase soil fertility which results to a good quality product to the farmers.
There are many types of biofertilizers, each one acting in its own specific way.
Green manures
Earthworms
Nitrogen fixing organisms
Azolla
4. 4
Blue green algae
Phosphate solubalising bacteria
Vascicular - arbiscular mycorrhizae
Greenmanures -
Green manure refers to supplying the plant nutrients by application of living plant material
to the soil. The nutrients are made available after decomposition of green manure in soil.
Many plants have been identified for their potentiality as green manure.
The green manures are normally applied when they are succulent and tender so that they
can easily decompose in soil. The green manures are incorporated into the soil by ploughing
them. As the nutrients are made available entirely by biological sources they are popularly
called as biofertilizers.
There are two systems in the use of green manures:
To bring the green leaf from outside and incorporating them in the soil.
To grow green manure crop on the land for cultivation, before the main crop is
grown and incorporate the same in the soil before sowing the main crop.
The former system is usually followed in green manure tree crops such as Pongemia which
are grown either on roadside or in forests. The greener part of these plants are cut and
applied to cultivated field. The latter system is followed in other short duration green
manure crops - which are grown on cultivated lands.
Most of green manure crops are leguminous and have capacity to fix nitrogen. Their use as
green manure is advantageous - as this helps in meeting the nutrient demands of cultivated
crop. Green manuring is reported to have increased the crop yields by 10 - 20%.
Earthworms -
Earthworms have traditionally been known as friend of farmer. They were known as
farmer's friend due to their lifestyle involving
turnover of the soil - as the earthworms move up and down in the soil, they help in
better aeration of soil and increase the permeability of soil.
production of manure by eating away the organic wastes.
Recently, their potentiality to produce the manure is commercially exploited. Growing
earthworms on commercial scale to produce the manure is called as VERMICULTURE and
manure produced by it is called VERMICOMPOST.
5. 5
Earthworms work day and night to convert the organic wastes into a nutrient rich manure.
Any decomposable organic waste can be used to produce VERMICOMPOST. Such manure
contains all major nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium besides many
micronutrients.
Advantages of biofertilizers:-
1. They help to get high yield of crops by making the soil rich with nutrients and useful
microorganisms necessary for the growth of the plants.
2. Biofertilizers have replaced the chemical fertilizers as chemical fertilizers are not
beneficial for the plants. They decrease the growth of the plants and make the
environment polluted by releasing harmful chemicals.
3. Plant growth can be increased if biofertilizers are used, because they contain natural
components which do not harm the plants but do the vice versa.
4. If the soil will be free of chemicals, it will retain its fertility which will be beneficial for
the plants as well as the environment, because plants will be protected from getting
any diseases and environment will be free of pollutants.
5. Biofertilizers destroy those harmful components from the soil which cause diseases
in the plants. Plants can also be protected against drought and other strict conditions
by using biofertilizers.
6. Biofertilizers are not costly and even poor farmers can make use of them.
7. They are environment friendly and protect the environment against pollutants.
Applications of biofertilizersto crop:-
Seedling root dip:- This method is applied to the rice crop. A bed of water is spread on the
land where the crop has to grow. The seedlings of rice are planted in the water and are kept
there for eight to ten hours.
Seed treatment:- In this method, the nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers are mixed together
in the water. Then seeds are dipped in this mixture. After the applications of this paste to
the seeds, seeds are dried. After they dry out, they have to be sown as soon as possible
before they get damaged by harmful microorganisms.
Soil treatment:- All the biofertilizers along with the compost fertilizers are mixed together.
They are kept for one night. Then the next day this mixture is spread on the soil where seeds
have to be sown.