This document discusses cancer and its causes at a cellular level. It describes how cancer develops from normal cells transforming into abnormal cells that destroy normal tissue. Cancer results from oncogene activation and anti-oncogene diminishment due to mutations from environmental factors like radiation, chemicals, viruses, and lifestyle factors. Oncogenes are genes that cause cell transformation, often originating from viruses. They can become activated through mutations that alter gene expression or protein function. Tumor suppressor genes normally inhibit cell growth but are deactivated in cancer. The document also outlines several tumor markers - abnormally produced molecules - that can indicate certain cancer types.
Cancer cells are characterized by uncontrolled growth, immortality, and ability to invade tissues and metastasize. Cancer is caused by genetic mutations from radiation, chemicals, viruses, and oncogenes. Oncogenes activate cell growth, while tumor suppressor genes inhibit growth. Cancer cells evade growth suppression and express tumor markers, like AFP, CEA, PSA, and calcitonin, which are detected in screening and monitoring treatment effectiveness.
The document discusses cancer biochemistry and tumor markers. It introduces cancer as uncontrolled cell growth, immortality, invasion and metastasis. Cancer causes include external carcinogens like chemicals, radiation, viruses and internal genetic factors. Two types of growth are benign and malignant tumors. Malignant tumors spread locally and metastasize distantly. Biochemical changes in cancer include alterations to growth factors, cell adhesion and immune evasion. Genetic changes modify oncogenes, tumor suppressors and stability genes. Tumor markers indicate cancer and include AFP, CEA, CA-125, HCG, PSA and others used for diagnosis, prognosis and monitoring treatment response.
Cancer arises from a disruption in the balance between cell birth and cell death, causing uncontrolled cell division and growth. This can be caused by physical, chemical, or biological carcinogens damaging DNA and transforming normal cells into cancer cells. Key events include the activation of proto-oncogenes into oncogenes and abnormalities in growth factors, receptors, and signal transducers that persistently stimulate growth. Cancer cells spread via metastasis, forming malignant tumors of different types classified by the cell of origin.
4. molecular basis of cancer dr. sinhasan, mdzahkciapm
This document discusses the multistep process of carcinogenesis. It involves nonlethal genetic damage through DNA damaging agents or inherited mutations that affect genes regulating DNA repair, cell growth, and apoptosis. This can lead to mutations in somatic cells and alterations in genes controlling growth and apoptosis. If DNA repair fails, altered gene expression and loss of regulatory genes can cause clonal expansion and additional mutations, resulting in tumor heterogeneity. Tumors are monoclonal, arising from a single mutated precursor cell.
This document discusses molecular perspectives on cancer development. It describes how cancer cells differ from normal cells in their loss of growth regulation and increased proliferation. The key characteristics of cancer include clonality, autonomy, anaplasia, metastasis. Cancer development is driven by mutations in oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, and mutator genes. Various carcinogens like chemicals, radiation, and viruses can cause these genetic mutations and ultimately lead to cancer. The major pathways of malignancy include uncontrolled proliferation, defects in cell cycle regulation, impaired DNA repair, immortalization, inhibited apoptosis, angiogenesis, and metastasis.
Carcinogenesis is the process by which normal cells are transformed into cancer cells. It occurs through genetic mutations, usually involving oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes such as p53. Carcinogens like chemicals and radiation can cause these mutations by damaging DNA. Carcinogenesis involves initiation of the DNA damage and promotion of the abnormal cell growth. It is a multi-step process that takes place over many years and can involve genetic and epigenetic changes in cells. Environmental toxins, diet, and lifestyle factors can influence cancer risk by affecting carcinogenesis.
Cancer is characterized by uncontrolled cell growth and spread. At the cellular level, cancer cells proliferate excessively, grow in an uncoordinated manner, and infiltrate surrounding tissues. This uncontrolled growth is caused by genetic disorders that affect genes regulating cell growth. Cancer cells lose control over growth and multiplication and do not self-destruct like normal cells. They crowd out healthy cells. Genetic changes can activate oncogenes or inactivate tumor suppressor genes, disrupting the normal balance between cell proliferation and cell death. A variety of genetic, environmental, and viral factors can cause these genetic changes and contribute to cancer development.
This document discusses cancer and its causes at a cellular level. It describes how cancer develops from normal cells transforming into abnormal cells that destroy normal tissue. Cancer results from oncogene activation and anti-oncogene diminishment due to mutations from environmental factors like radiation, chemicals, viruses, and lifestyle factors. Oncogenes are genes that cause cell transformation, often originating from viruses. They can become activated through mutations that alter gene expression or protein function. Tumor suppressor genes normally inhibit cell growth but are deactivated in cancer. The document also outlines several tumor markers - abnormally produced molecules - that can indicate certain cancer types.
Cancer cells are characterized by uncontrolled growth, immortality, and ability to invade tissues and metastasize. Cancer is caused by genetic mutations from radiation, chemicals, viruses, and oncogenes. Oncogenes activate cell growth, while tumor suppressor genes inhibit growth. Cancer cells evade growth suppression and express tumor markers, like AFP, CEA, PSA, and calcitonin, which are detected in screening and monitoring treatment effectiveness.
The document discusses cancer biochemistry and tumor markers. It introduces cancer as uncontrolled cell growth, immortality, invasion and metastasis. Cancer causes include external carcinogens like chemicals, radiation, viruses and internal genetic factors. Two types of growth are benign and malignant tumors. Malignant tumors spread locally and metastasize distantly. Biochemical changes in cancer include alterations to growth factors, cell adhesion and immune evasion. Genetic changes modify oncogenes, tumor suppressors and stability genes. Tumor markers indicate cancer and include AFP, CEA, CA-125, HCG, PSA and others used for diagnosis, prognosis and monitoring treatment response.
Cancer arises from a disruption in the balance between cell birth and cell death, causing uncontrolled cell division and growth. This can be caused by physical, chemical, or biological carcinogens damaging DNA and transforming normal cells into cancer cells. Key events include the activation of proto-oncogenes into oncogenes and abnormalities in growth factors, receptors, and signal transducers that persistently stimulate growth. Cancer cells spread via metastasis, forming malignant tumors of different types classified by the cell of origin.
4. molecular basis of cancer dr. sinhasan, mdzahkciapm
This document discusses the multistep process of carcinogenesis. It involves nonlethal genetic damage through DNA damaging agents or inherited mutations that affect genes regulating DNA repair, cell growth, and apoptosis. This can lead to mutations in somatic cells and alterations in genes controlling growth and apoptosis. If DNA repair fails, altered gene expression and loss of regulatory genes can cause clonal expansion and additional mutations, resulting in tumor heterogeneity. Tumors are monoclonal, arising from a single mutated precursor cell.
This document discusses molecular perspectives on cancer development. It describes how cancer cells differ from normal cells in their loss of growth regulation and increased proliferation. The key characteristics of cancer include clonality, autonomy, anaplasia, metastasis. Cancer development is driven by mutations in oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, and mutator genes. Various carcinogens like chemicals, radiation, and viruses can cause these genetic mutations and ultimately lead to cancer. The major pathways of malignancy include uncontrolled proliferation, defects in cell cycle regulation, impaired DNA repair, immortalization, inhibited apoptosis, angiogenesis, and metastasis.
Carcinogenesis is the process by which normal cells are transformed into cancer cells. It occurs through genetic mutations, usually involving oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes such as p53. Carcinogens like chemicals and radiation can cause these mutations by damaging DNA. Carcinogenesis involves initiation of the DNA damage and promotion of the abnormal cell growth. It is a multi-step process that takes place over many years and can involve genetic and epigenetic changes in cells. Environmental toxins, diet, and lifestyle factors can influence cancer risk by affecting carcinogenesis.
Cancer is characterized by uncontrolled cell growth and spread. At the cellular level, cancer cells proliferate excessively, grow in an uncoordinated manner, and infiltrate surrounding tissues. This uncontrolled growth is caused by genetic disorders that affect genes regulating cell growth. Cancer cells lose control over growth and multiplication and do not self-destruct like normal cells. They crowd out healthy cells. Genetic changes can activate oncogenes or inactivate tumor suppressor genes, disrupting the normal balance between cell proliferation and cell death. A variety of genetic, environmental, and viral factors can cause these genetic changes and contribute to cancer development.
This document summarizes key concepts regarding oncogenes:
1. Oncogenes are genes that can trigger cancer development through viral insertion or mutation of normal cellular genes.
2. Early retroviruses like RSV were found to contain viral oncogenes like v-src that caused cancer upon infection.
3. Normal cellular genes called proto-oncogenes were later discovered that are homologous to viral oncogenes and can become activated by mutations to drive cancer. Common mutations include point mutations, gene amplifications, and chromosomal translocations.
Physical and chemical factors can cause carcinogenesis. Physical factors include ionizing radiation, ultraviolet radiation, radiofrequency/microwave radiation, electromagnetic fields, asbestos, and nanoparticles. Ionizing radiation can directly damage DNA and induce mutations. UV radiation induces pyrimidine dimers and 6-4 photoproducts in DNA, which can lead to mutations if not repaired. Asbestos fibers can cause DNA damage through reactive oxygen species and inflammation, increasing lung cancer and mesothelioma risk. The document discusses the mechanisms of damage and cancer risks from these physical and chemical carcinogenic factors.
Cancer is caused by mutations in genes that regulate cell growth and proliferation. These mutations can activate proto-oncogenes into oncogenes or inactivate tumor suppressor genes. Oncogenes promote cell growth while tumor suppressor genes normally inhibit cell proliferation. Common mechanisms of proto-oncogene activation include chromosomal translocations, gene amplifications, and point mutations. Disruptions to cell cycle checkpoints, apoptosis, telomere maintenance and DNA repair pathways can also contribute to cancer development by allowing abnormal cell growth and survival.
Cancer arises from disruptions to the normal balance between cell growth and cell death. This disruption can result from uncontrolled cell growth due to oncogene activation or loss of a cell's ability to undergo apoptosis. Cancer is caused by genetic mutations in somatic cells that can be induced by carcinogens, radiation, viruses or heredity. The main genes involved in cancer development are oncogenes, which promote uncontrolled cell growth, and tumor suppressor genes, which normally inhibit cell growth but can be inactivated by mutations. DNA repair genes are also important as their mutations can lead to increased mutations in other cancer genes.
ONCOGENE AND PROTOONCOGENE
P53 GENE AND ITS APPLICATION IN CANCER ETIOLOGY
TUMOUR SUPPRESSOR GENE AND BCA AND BAC GENE AND ITS APPLICATION ON THE APOPTOSIS AND DEATH RECEPTORS
ONCOGENIC VIRUSES
Viruses that produce tumours in their natural host / experimental animals
or
which induce malignant transformation of cells on culture.
Features of viral oncogenesis
- cause cancer in humans & animals
- long latency between viral infection and tumorigenesis
- modulate growth control pathways in cells
- viral markers are present in tumor cells
Cancer is caused by genetic mutations in somatic cells. Whole genome sequencing can identify all genetic alterations in cancer including single nucleotide mutations, small insertions/deletions, copy number changes, and chromosomal rearrangements. Earlier methods focused on sequencing protein kinase genes known to be involved in cancer signaling pathways. Current methods like whole exome sequencing focus on coding exons to identify damaging mutations at lower cost compared to whole genome sequencing. Non-coding mutations in regulatory regions and microRNAs are also important in cancer development.
Oncogenes are mutated genes that cause the transformation of normal cells into cancer cells. Proto-oncogenes are normal genes involved in cell growth and proliferation that can become oncogenes when mutated. Oncogenes can be activated by viruses carrying oncogenic genes or through mutations in normal cellular genes, such as point mutations, chromosomal rearrangements, and gene amplifications. Examples of oncogene activation discussed include the viral oncogene v-src carried by Rous sarcoma virus and mutations in the RAS and MYC proto-oncogenes. Oncogenes encode oncoproteins that promote uncontrolled cell growth and division leading to cancer.
The document discusses how normal cells are transformed into cancer cells through multiple genetic changes over many years. It describes several key changes that occur during this process, including immortalization where cells can divide indefinitely, transformation where cells grow independently of external signals, and metastasis where cancer cells invade other tissues. Several types of genetic alterations are also discussed that can activate oncogenes or inactivate tumor suppressor genes, such as mutations, amplification, insertion, or translocation events. This leads to deregulated cell growth and proliferation by disrupting normal cell signaling pathways.
1. The document discusses fundamentals of host defense and innate immunity, focusing on physical and chemical defenses, the inflammatory response, and cellular defenses as part of the innate immune system.
2. Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) play an important role in innate immunity by recognizing pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) from microbes. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a major class of PRRs that signal the presence of various pathogens.
3. Innate immunity provides rapid response to infection prior to adaptive immunity and helps initiate adaptive immune responses through cytokines and antigen presentation. Therapeutic manipulation of TLRs may enhance or suppress immune responses.
This document summarizes oncogenesis, the process by which normal cells are transformed into cancer cells. It discusses how proto-oncogenes can become activated oncogenes through mutations, increased expression, or chromosomal rearrangements. Oncogenes code for proteins involved in cell growth and division. The document also describes various causes of oncogenesis like genetic/epigenetic changes, DNA damage from endogenous or exogenous sources, field defects, and oncogenic viruses that activate proto-oncogenes or inactivate tumor suppressor genes. The mechanisms of viral oncogenesis and classification of viral oncogenes into growth factors, receptors, signal transducers and transcription factors are summarized as well.
This document provides an overview of gene therapy, including its history, mechanisms, and applications in dentistry. Gene therapy involves introducing genetic material into cells to treat or prevent disease. Viruses are commonly used as vectors to deliver therapeutic genes. The document discusses various gene therapy techniques for conditions like oral cancer, pain management, bone regeneration, and salivary gland disorders. It concludes that gene therapy has potential for improving management of oral diseases and quality of life.
The document discusses tumor viruses, oncogenes, and tumor suppressor genes. It summarizes key findings such as:
1. Peyton Rous discovered viruses can cause cancer in chickens in 1910. Retroviruses like Rous sarcoma virus carry oncogenes that can transform infected cells.
2. Oncogenes were first discovered in viruses and called viral oncogenes. Their normal cellular counterparts are called proto-oncogenes, which regulate cell growth. Activation of proto-oncogenes into oncogenes, such as via mutation, can accelerate cell growth and division leading to cancer.
3. Tumor suppressor genes are normal genes that protect the cell. Their absence can allow
This document summarizes key concepts about neoplasms and cancer. It defines neoplasms as abnormal masses of tissue with uncontrolled growth. Oncology is the study of tumors. Tumors can be benign, meaning localized growth, or malignant (cancerous), meaning they can invade other tissues and metastasize. Cancers arise from genetic changes in cells that disrupt normal growth regulation. Key cancer genes include oncogenes that promote growth and tumor suppressor genes that inhibit growth. Evasion of apoptosis and unlimited replication are also critical to cancer development.
Carcinogenesis refers to the process by which a normal cell is transformed into a malignant cell and repeatedly divides to become a cancer
Chemicals which initiate this process is called chemical carcinogens
Chemicals which increase the effectiveness of carcinogens is called co-carcinogens
REGULATORY BACKGROUND
ROLE OF PROTO-ONCOGENES AND TUMOR SUPPRESSOR GENES
ACTIVATION OF PROTO ONCOGENES
OXIDATIVE STRESS IN CARCINOGENESIS
OECD guidelines
451- Carcinogenecity studies
453- Combined chronic toxicity/carcinogenecity
ICH guidelines
S1A- Guideline on the need for carcinogenicity studies of
pharmaceuticals
S1B- Testing for carcinogenicity of pharmaceuticals
S1C- Dose selection for carcinogenicity studies of pharmaceuticals
Oncogenes encode proteins that promote cell growth and inhibit apoptosis. There are four classes of genes that regulate cell growth: proto-oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, genes that regulate apoptosis, and genes involved in DNA repair. Oncogenes can be activated by mutations, gene fusions, or amplification and drive cancer progression. The products of oncogenes resemble normal growth factors, growth factor receptors, signal transducers, transcription factors, apoptosis regulators, and chromatin remodelers but endow cells with autonomous growth.
In principle, anti-growth signals can prevent cell proliferation by several complementary mechanisms.
The signal may cause dividing cells to enter G0, where they remain until external cues prod their re-entry into the proliferative pool.
Alternatively, the cells may enter a postmitotic, differentiated pool and lose replicative potential.
Non-replicative senescence, is another mechanism of escape from sustained cell growth.
And, as a last-ditch effort, the cells may be programmed for death by apoptosis.
Therefore, tumor suppressor genes have all these “tricks” in their toolbox designed to halt wayward cells from becoming malignant.
This document discusses various chemical, physical, hormonal, and biological carcinogens and their role in cancer development. It describes how chemicals like benzpyrenes, aflotoxin B1, and polycyclic hydrocarbons can cause DNA damage and initiate cancer through metabolic activation. Physical carcinogens like radiation are also discussed, as well as how viruses like HPV and EBV can integrate into host DNA and induce oncogene expression, leading to cancer. The stages of initiation and promotion in chemical carcinogenesis are summarized.
Cancer arises from mutations in genes that regulate cell growth and division. These mutations can cause cells to grow uncontrollably and form tumors. There are two main types of cancer genes - oncogenes which promote cell growth when mutated, and tumor suppressor genes which normally inhibit cell growth but cannot when mutated in both copies of the gene. Most cancers are caused by multiple mutations that accumulate over time due to environmental exposures, random errors in cell division, or inherited genetic syndromes.
Cancer is caused by defects in cell division that result from genetic mutations. Normal cell growth becomes unregulated, as cells multiply uncontrollably and crowd out healthy tissue. If cancer cells invade surrounding areas or spread to other parts of the body through metastasis and angiogenesis, it is considered malignant. Staging and grading of tumors helps determine prognosis and appropriate treatment options like surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, or targeted therapies.
This document summarizes key concepts regarding oncogenes:
1. Oncogenes are genes that can trigger cancer development through viral insertion or mutation of normal cellular genes.
2. Early retroviruses like RSV were found to contain viral oncogenes like v-src that caused cancer upon infection.
3. Normal cellular genes called proto-oncogenes were later discovered that are homologous to viral oncogenes and can become activated by mutations to drive cancer. Common mutations include point mutations, gene amplifications, and chromosomal translocations.
Physical and chemical factors can cause carcinogenesis. Physical factors include ionizing radiation, ultraviolet radiation, radiofrequency/microwave radiation, electromagnetic fields, asbestos, and nanoparticles. Ionizing radiation can directly damage DNA and induce mutations. UV radiation induces pyrimidine dimers and 6-4 photoproducts in DNA, which can lead to mutations if not repaired. Asbestos fibers can cause DNA damage through reactive oxygen species and inflammation, increasing lung cancer and mesothelioma risk. The document discusses the mechanisms of damage and cancer risks from these physical and chemical carcinogenic factors.
Cancer is caused by mutations in genes that regulate cell growth and proliferation. These mutations can activate proto-oncogenes into oncogenes or inactivate tumor suppressor genes. Oncogenes promote cell growth while tumor suppressor genes normally inhibit cell proliferation. Common mechanisms of proto-oncogene activation include chromosomal translocations, gene amplifications, and point mutations. Disruptions to cell cycle checkpoints, apoptosis, telomere maintenance and DNA repair pathways can also contribute to cancer development by allowing abnormal cell growth and survival.
Cancer arises from disruptions to the normal balance between cell growth and cell death. This disruption can result from uncontrolled cell growth due to oncogene activation or loss of a cell's ability to undergo apoptosis. Cancer is caused by genetic mutations in somatic cells that can be induced by carcinogens, radiation, viruses or heredity. The main genes involved in cancer development are oncogenes, which promote uncontrolled cell growth, and tumor suppressor genes, which normally inhibit cell growth but can be inactivated by mutations. DNA repair genes are also important as their mutations can lead to increased mutations in other cancer genes.
ONCOGENE AND PROTOONCOGENE
P53 GENE AND ITS APPLICATION IN CANCER ETIOLOGY
TUMOUR SUPPRESSOR GENE AND BCA AND BAC GENE AND ITS APPLICATION ON THE APOPTOSIS AND DEATH RECEPTORS
ONCOGENIC VIRUSES
Viruses that produce tumours in their natural host / experimental animals
or
which induce malignant transformation of cells on culture.
Features of viral oncogenesis
- cause cancer in humans & animals
- long latency between viral infection and tumorigenesis
- modulate growth control pathways in cells
- viral markers are present in tumor cells
Cancer is caused by genetic mutations in somatic cells. Whole genome sequencing can identify all genetic alterations in cancer including single nucleotide mutations, small insertions/deletions, copy number changes, and chromosomal rearrangements. Earlier methods focused on sequencing protein kinase genes known to be involved in cancer signaling pathways. Current methods like whole exome sequencing focus on coding exons to identify damaging mutations at lower cost compared to whole genome sequencing. Non-coding mutations in regulatory regions and microRNAs are also important in cancer development.
Oncogenes are mutated genes that cause the transformation of normal cells into cancer cells. Proto-oncogenes are normal genes involved in cell growth and proliferation that can become oncogenes when mutated. Oncogenes can be activated by viruses carrying oncogenic genes or through mutations in normal cellular genes, such as point mutations, chromosomal rearrangements, and gene amplifications. Examples of oncogene activation discussed include the viral oncogene v-src carried by Rous sarcoma virus and mutations in the RAS and MYC proto-oncogenes. Oncogenes encode oncoproteins that promote uncontrolled cell growth and division leading to cancer.
The document discusses how normal cells are transformed into cancer cells through multiple genetic changes over many years. It describes several key changes that occur during this process, including immortalization where cells can divide indefinitely, transformation where cells grow independently of external signals, and metastasis where cancer cells invade other tissues. Several types of genetic alterations are also discussed that can activate oncogenes or inactivate tumor suppressor genes, such as mutations, amplification, insertion, or translocation events. This leads to deregulated cell growth and proliferation by disrupting normal cell signaling pathways.
1. The document discusses fundamentals of host defense and innate immunity, focusing on physical and chemical defenses, the inflammatory response, and cellular defenses as part of the innate immune system.
2. Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) play an important role in innate immunity by recognizing pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) from microbes. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a major class of PRRs that signal the presence of various pathogens.
3. Innate immunity provides rapid response to infection prior to adaptive immunity and helps initiate adaptive immune responses through cytokines and antigen presentation. Therapeutic manipulation of TLRs may enhance or suppress immune responses.
This document summarizes oncogenesis, the process by which normal cells are transformed into cancer cells. It discusses how proto-oncogenes can become activated oncogenes through mutations, increased expression, or chromosomal rearrangements. Oncogenes code for proteins involved in cell growth and division. The document also describes various causes of oncogenesis like genetic/epigenetic changes, DNA damage from endogenous or exogenous sources, field defects, and oncogenic viruses that activate proto-oncogenes or inactivate tumor suppressor genes. The mechanisms of viral oncogenesis and classification of viral oncogenes into growth factors, receptors, signal transducers and transcription factors are summarized as well.
This document provides an overview of gene therapy, including its history, mechanisms, and applications in dentistry. Gene therapy involves introducing genetic material into cells to treat or prevent disease. Viruses are commonly used as vectors to deliver therapeutic genes. The document discusses various gene therapy techniques for conditions like oral cancer, pain management, bone regeneration, and salivary gland disorders. It concludes that gene therapy has potential for improving management of oral diseases and quality of life.
The document discusses tumor viruses, oncogenes, and tumor suppressor genes. It summarizes key findings such as:
1. Peyton Rous discovered viruses can cause cancer in chickens in 1910. Retroviruses like Rous sarcoma virus carry oncogenes that can transform infected cells.
2. Oncogenes were first discovered in viruses and called viral oncogenes. Their normal cellular counterparts are called proto-oncogenes, which regulate cell growth. Activation of proto-oncogenes into oncogenes, such as via mutation, can accelerate cell growth and division leading to cancer.
3. Tumor suppressor genes are normal genes that protect the cell. Their absence can allow
This document summarizes key concepts about neoplasms and cancer. It defines neoplasms as abnormal masses of tissue with uncontrolled growth. Oncology is the study of tumors. Tumors can be benign, meaning localized growth, or malignant (cancerous), meaning they can invade other tissues and metastasize. Cancers arise from genetic changes in cells that disrupt normal growth regulation. Key cancer genes include oncogenes that promote growth and tumor suppressor genes that inhibit growth. Evasion of apoptosis and unlimited replication are also critical to cancer development.
Carcinogenesis refers to the process by which a normal cell is transformed into a malignant cell and repeatedly divides to become a cancer
Chemicals which initiate this process is called chemical carcinogens
Chemicals which increase the effectiveness of carcinogens is called co-carcinogens
REGULATORY BACKGROUND
ROLE OF PROTO-ONCOGENES AND TUMOR SUPPRESSOR GENES
ACTIVATION OF PROTO ONCOGENES
OXIDATIVE STRESS IN CARCINOGENESIS
OECD guidelines
451- Carcinogenecity studies
453- Combined chronic toxicity/carcinogenecity
ICH guidelines
S1A- Guideline on the need for carcinogenicity studies of
pharmaceuticals
S1B- Testing for carcinogenicity of pharmaceuticals
S1C- Dose selection for carcinogenicity studies of pharmaceuticals
Oncogenes encode proteins that promote cell growth and inhibit apoptosis. There are four classes of genes that regulate cell growth: proto-oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, genes that regulate apoptosis, and genes involved in DNA repair. Oncogenes can be activated by mutations, gene fusions, or amplification and drive cancer progression. The products of oncogenes resemble normal growth factors, growth factor receptors, signal transducers, transcription factors, apoptosis regulators, and chromatin remodelers but endow cells with autonomous growth.
In principle, anti-growth signals can prevent cell proliferation by several complementary mechanisms.
The signal may cause dividing cells to enter G0, where they remain until external cues prod their re-entry into the proliferative pool.
Alternatively, the cells may enter a postmitotic, differentiated pool and lose replicative potential.
Non-replicative senescence, is another mechanism of escape from sustained cell growth.
And, as a last-ditch effort, the cells may be programmed for death by apoptosis.
Therefore, tumor suppressor genes have all these “tricks” in their toolbox designed to halt wayward cells from becoming malignant.
This document discusses various chemical, physical, hormonal, and biological carcinogens and their role in cancer development. It describes how chemicals like benzpyrenes, aflotoxin B1, and polycyclic hydrocarbons can cause DNA damage and initiate cancer through metabolic activation. Physical carcinogens like radiation are also discussed, as well as how viruses like HPV and EBV can integrate into host DNA and induce oncogene expression, leading to cancer. The stages of initiation and promotion in chemical carcinogenesis are summarized.
Cancer arises from mutations in genes that regulate cell growth and division. These mutations can cause cells to grow uncontrollably and form tumors. There are two main types of cancer genes - oncogenes which promote cell growth when mutated, and tumor suppressor genes which normally inhibit cell growth but cannot when mutated in both copies of the gene. Most cancers are caused by multiple mutations that accumulate over time due to environmental exposures, random errors in cell division, or inherited genetic syndromes.
Cancer is caused by defects in cell division that result from genetic mutations. Normal cell growth becomes unregulated, as cells multiply uncontrollably and crowd out healthy tissue. If cancer cells invade surrounding areas or spread to other parts of the body through metastasis and angiogenesis, it is considered malignant. Staging and grading of tumors helps determine prognosis and appropriate treatment options like surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, or targeted therapies.
This document discusses various aspects of carcinogenesis. It begins by describing the key properties of cancer cells such as uncontrolled growth, invasion, and metastasis. It then discusses various causes of cancer including physical, chemical, and biological agents. Radiation, chemicals, and viruses can all act as carcinogens. The document goes on to describe how carcinogens interact with and damage DNA. It discusses initiation and promotion in carcinogenesis and the roles of oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes such as p53. The document also covers topics like telomerase, metastasis, and the tendency of tumors to progress in malignancy.
Cancer is characterized by uncontrolled cellular growth and proliferation that can spread to other parts of the body. It is caused by both external factors like chemicals, radiation, viruses and internal factors such as genetic mutations. Cancer development is driven by changes in oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes. Tumor markers are substances produced by cancer cells or the body in response to cancer that can be detected in bodily fluids or tissues and used to diagnose certain cancer types. Some common tumor markers are CEA for colon cancer, AFP for liver cancer, and PSA for prostate cancer.
Genetics of cancer can involve mutations in three classes of genes: proto-oncogenes that become activated oncogenes and promote uncontrolled growth; tumor suppressor genes like RB and p53 that normally inhibit cell growth but are inactivated by mutations; and mutator genes involved in DNA repair that increase mutation rates when defective. The two-hit model of cancer explains that mutations in both copies of tumor suppressor genes are required for tumor formation.
Cancer arises from mutations in genes that control cell growth and division. These include oncogenes, which promote cell growth, and tumor suppressor genes, which normally inhibit cell growth. Mutations in oncogenes cause them to constantly stimulate cell proliferation, while mutations in tumor suppressor genes reduce their ability to inhibit cell growth. This disrupts the normal balance between cell proliferation and cell death, causing uncontrolled cell division and tumor growth. Cancer can be caused by environmental factors like toxins that induce mutations, or by inherited genetic mutations. Understanding the molecular basis of cancer is crucial for developing targeted treatments that block mutated oncogenes or restore tumor suppressor gene function.
All about genes oncogenes mutations-cloning-gene therapyAhmed Amer
1) DNA contains the genetic code and is located in chromosomes within the nucleus. DNA is transcribed into RNA and translated into proteins, which allows genes to be expressed.
2) Mutations in genes can be caused by errors in DNA replication or exposure to mutagens and can have neutral, harmful, or beneficial effects depending on where they occur. Mutations in proto-oncogenes can transform them into oncogenes and promote cancer development.
3) Cloning techniques allow for the duplication of DNA, whole organisms, or embryonic stem cells for research and potential therapies. Gene cloning is used to study and modify genes, while reproductive and therapeutic cloning are more controversial due to ethical concerns.
Molecular biology of oral cancer
The document discusses the molecular basis of oral cancer through three main points:
1) It describes common genetic alterations in oral cancer such as overexpression of oncogenes like EGFR and mutations in tumor suppressor genes like p53.
2) It explains how alterations in proto-oncogenes and oncogenes lead to uncontrolled cell growth and proliferation through signaling pathways and transcription factors.
3) It discusses how defects in DNA repair genes can cause genomic instability, a hallmark of cancer, through increased mutations that evade cell cycle checkpoints and apoptosis.
Cancer is caused by uncontrolled cell growth and can spread through invasion and metastasis. There are over 200 types of cancer that can affect different parts of the body. The cellular basis of cancer involves a disruption of the normal balance between new cell growth and cell death. Cancer arises due to mutations in genes controlling cell proliferation, which can be caused by carcinogens, radiation, viruses, or heredity. Oncogenes promote cancer by stimulating cell growth and division, while tumor suppressor genes normally inhibit cell proliferation, and inactivation of both copies allows for uncontrolled growth.
This slide show that how GSTM1(Glutathione S-transeferase M1) initiate sporadic breast cancer.Also show what is breast cancer,their types and causes.This is a short case control study on breast cancer cases and healthy population.
This presentation is targeted for MBBS, MD and BDS students that describes briefly about aetiopathogenesis, tumour markers, anti cancer agents, apoptosis
Cancer arises due to genetic aberrations that accumulate in somatic cells and alter gene expression. There are several types of genomic changes including mutations, chromosome defects, and changes to oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes. Genetic testing can identify inherited cancer risk genes and guide diagnosis and treatment, while gene therapy holds promise for directly treating cancer at the genetic level.
Chemical carcinogenesis involves three main steps: initiation, promotion, and progression. Initiation involves DNA damage from chemical mutagens and fixes mutations irreversibly. Promotion involves selective growth of initiated cells through continuous exposure to tumor promoters. This stage is reversible. Progression results from accumulating mutations during promotion and leads to increased malignancy, invasiveness and metastasis. Inflammation can act at all stages by inducing mutations, stimulating cell growth, and creating an environment conducive to tumor development and spread.
Cancer biochemistry involves biochemical alterations in cancer cells. Specific objectives include listing protooncogenes and tumor suppressor genes, and explaining their roles and mechanisms of action. Protooncogenes become oncogenes through activation mechanisms like mutations. Tumor suppressor genes like p53 regulate cell proliferation and their mutation leads to cancer. Cyclins and cell cycle phases are also discussed. Standard cancer treatments include surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy using antimetabolite drugs. Tumor markers can be used for cancer diagnosis, prognosis, localization, and treatment monitoring and are classified based on their type.
To make the probe, researchers would isolate DNA from the region of interest and label it radioactively, usually with 32P. This radioactive probe could then be used to screen the library and identify clones containing complementary DNA sequences.
To make the probe, researchers would isolate DNA from the region of interest and label it radioactively, usually with 32P. This radiolabeled probe could then be used to screen the library of clones and identify those containing overlapping or adjacent DNA sequences.
Similar to Biochemistry of cancer ,An overview (20)
Know the difference between Endodontics and Orthodontics.Gokuldas Hospital
Your smile is beautiful.
Let’s be honest. Maintaining that beautiful smile is not an easy task. It is more than brushing and flossing. Sometimes, you might encounter dental issues that need special dental care. These issues can range anywhere from misalignment of the jaw to pain in the root of teeth.
Breast cancer: Post menopausal endocrine therapyDr. Sumit KUMAR
Breast cancer in postmenopausal women with hormone receptor-positive (HR+) status is a common and complex condition that necessitates a multifaceted approach to management. HR+ breast cancer means that the cancer cells grow in response to hormones such as estrogen and progesterone. This subtype is prevalent among postmenopausal women and typically exhibits a more indolent course compared to other forms of breast cancer, which allows for a variety of treatment options.
Diagnosis and Staging
The diagnosis of HR+ breast cancer begins with clinical evaluation, imaging, and biopsy. Imaging modalities such as mammography, ultrasound, and MRI help in assessing the extent of the disease. Histopathological examination and immunohistochemical staining of the biopsy sample confirm the diagnosis and hormone receptor status by identifying the presence of estrogen receptors (ER) and progesterone receptors (PR) on the tumor cells.
Staging involves determining the size of the tumor (T), the involvement of regional lymph nodes (N), and the presence of distant metastasis (M). The American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) staging system is commonly used. Accurate staging is critical as it guides treatment decisions.
Treatment Options
Endocrine Therapy
Endocrine therapy is the cornerstone of treatment for HR+ breast cancer in postmenopausal women. The primary goal is to reduce the levels of estrogen or block its effects on cancer cells. Commonly used agents include:
Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators (SERMs): Tamoxifen is a SERM that binds to estrogen receptors, blocking estrogen from stimulating breast cancer cells. It is effective but may have side effects such as increased risk of endometrial cancer and thromboembolic events.
Aromatase Inhibitors (AIs): These drugs, including anastrozole, letrozole, and exemestane, lower estrogen levels by inhibiting the aromatase enzyme, which converts androgens to estrogen in peripheral tissues. AIs are generally preferred in postmenopausal women due to their efficacy and safety profile compared to tamoxifen.
Selective Estrogen Receptor Downregulators (SERDs): Fulvestrant is a SERD that degrades estrogen receptors and is used in cases where resistance to other endocrine therapies develops.
Combination Therapies
Combining endocrine therapy with other treatments enhances efficacy. Examples include:
Endocrine Therapy with CDK4/6 Inhibitors: Palbociclib, ribociclib, and abemaciclib are CDK4/6 inhibitors that, when combined with endocrine therapy, significantly improve progression-free survival in advanced HR+ breast cancer.
Endocrine Therapy with mTOR Inhibitors: Everolimus, an mTOR inhibitor, can be added to endocrine therapy for patients who have developed resistance to aromatase inhibitors.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is generally reserved for patients with high-risk features, such as large tumor size, high-grade histology, or extensive lymph node involvement. Regimens often include anthracyclines and taxanes.
The biomechanics of running involves the study of the mechanical principles underlying running movements. It includes the analysis of the running gait cycle, which consists of the stance phase (foot contact to push-off) and the swing phase (foot lift-off to next contact). Key aspects include kinematics (joint angles and movements, stride length and frequency) and kinetics (forces involved in running, including ground reaction and muscle forces). Understanding these factors helps in improving running performance, optimizing technique, and preventing injuries.
PGx Analysis in VarSeq: A User’s PerspectiveGolden Helix
Since our release of the PGx capabilities in VarSeq, we’ve had a few months to gather some insights from various use cases. Some users approach PGx workflows by means of array genotyping or what seems to be a growing trend of adding the star allele calling to the existing NGS pipeline for whole genome data. Luckily, both approaches are supported with the VarSeq software platform. The genotyping method being used will also dictate what the scope of the tertiary analysis will be. For example, are your PGx reports a standalone pipeline or would your lab’s goal be to handle a dual-purpose workflow and report on PGx + Diagnostic findings.
The purpose of this webcast is to:
Discuss and demonstrate the approaches with array and NGS genotyping methods for star allele calling to prep for downstream analysis.
Following genotyping, explore alternative tertiary workflow concepts in VarSeq to handle PGx reporting.
Moreover, we will include insights users will need to consider when validating their PGx workflow for all possible star alleles and options you have for automating your PGx analysis for large number of samples. Please join us for a session dedicated to the application of star allele genotyping and subsequent PGx workflows in our VarSeq software.
Nutritional deficiency Disorder are problems in india.
It is very important to learn about Indian child's nutritional parameters as well the Disease related to alteration in their Nutrition.
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In a world overflowing with diet trends and conflicting nutrition advice, it’s easy to get lost in misinformation. This article cuts through the noise to debunk common nutrition myths that may be sabotaging your health goals. From the truth about carbohydrates and fats to the real effects of sugar and artificial sweeteners, we break down what science actually says. Equip yourself with knowledge to make informed decisions about your diet, and learn how to navigate the complexities of modern nutrition with confidence. Say goodbye to food confusion and hello to a healthier you!
Nano-gold for Cancer Therapy chemistry investigatory projectSIVAVINAYAKPK
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The development of nanogold-based cancer therapy could revolutionize oncology by providing a more targeted, less invasive treatment option. This project contributes to the growing body of research aimed at harnessing nanotechnology for medical applications, paving the way for future clinical trials and potential commercial applications.
Cancer remains one of the leading causes of death worldwide, prompting the need for innovative treatment methods. Nanotechnology offers promising new approaches, including the use of gold nanoparticles (nanogold) for targeted cancer therapy. Nanogold particles possess unique physical and chemical properties that make them suitable for drug delivery, imaging, and photothermal therapy.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/Pt1nA32sdHQ
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5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT or Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that serves a range of roles in the human body. It is sometimes referred to as the happy chemical since it promotes overall well-being and happiness.
It is mostly found in the brain, intestines, and blood platelets.
5-HT is utilised to transport messages between nerve cells, is known to be involved in smooth muscle contraction, and adds to overall well-being and pleasure, among other benefits. 5-HT regulates the body's sleep-wake cycles and internal clock by acting as a precursor to melatonin.
It is hypothesised to regulate hunger, emotions, motor, cognitive, and autonomic processes.
STUDIES IN SUPPORT OF SPECIAL POPULATIONS: GERIATRICS E7shruti jagirdar
Unit 4: MRA 103T Regulatory affairs
This guideline is directed principally toward new Molecular Entities that are
likely to have significant use in the elderly, either because the disease intended
to be treated is characteristically a disease of aging ( e.g., Alzheimer's disease) or
because the population to be treated is known to include substantial numbers of
geriatric patients (e.g., hypertension).
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The skin is the largest organ and its health plays a vital role among the other sense organs. The skin concerns like acne breakout, psoriasis, or anything similar along the lines, finding a qualified and experienced dermatologist becomes paramount.
2. Cell that is transformed .
Recognized by population of abnormal cells within the
normal tissue causing destruction of normal cell
population & behave like parasite.
3. A simplified hypothesis for development of cancer
Inactive anti-oncogenes Diminish
regulation by
apoptosis gene
Oncogenic Mutations
viruses
Environmental
factors( physical and
chemical)
Oncogene Activation
Carcinogenesis
4. Characteristics of differentiated cell
Lack contact inhibition .
Trap for nitrogen compounds.
Site of growth.
Loss of control on cell division.
Decreased protein degradation as compared to synthesis.
Transfer modified characters to daughter cells & subsequent
progeny.
Loss of anchorage.
6. Effects of radiation
UV Rays X Rays Gama Rays
Mutagenic & Carcinogenic
Damage to DNA.
Pyrimidine dimers to form
Formation of apurinic or apyrimidinic sites.
Single & double strand break & cross linking
Free radical formation.( OH ͘ , super oxide)
8. Chemical carcinogens
• 80% of cancer caused by chemicals
• Organic eg. benzo pyrine,
• Organic eg. benzo pyrine,
• chemicals
dimethylnitrosamine
Inorganic eg. Cadmium , Arsenic
9. How carcinogens enter in the body ?
Occupation ==== Asbestos, benzene
Diet --------------- Aflatoxin produced by fungus
(Aspergillus flavous) contamination with peanuts.
Drugs-------------- Diethylstilbestrol
Life style-----------Cigarette smoking
Two types ---- Direct
Procarcinogens
10. Role of initiator & promoter
Initiator
Carcinogen
benzopyrene
Promotor
Croton oil
Potential tumor cells
Proliferating
cancer cells
Release & migration of cancer cells
11. Promotors
Promotor
• Cyclomates
• saccharin
• Metabolites of Tyrosine :
Phenol & cresol
Tryptophan: Indol & Indol
acetate
Tissue
• Tumor of Bladder
• Tumor of Gastrointestinal
tract.
12. Mechanism of action of chemical carcinogen
Pro -carcinogen proximate carcinogen
ultimate carcinogen
(highly reactive)
Electrophiles (deficient in
electrons)
Enzyme responsible for activation-----Cytochrome P450
13. Some chemical carcinogens
Class
• Polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons.
• Azo dyes (Aromatic amines)
• Nitrosamines
• Various drugs ( alkylating &
acetylating agents)
• Aflatoxins(fungus Aspergillus
Flavus)
Compound
• Benzo pyrene present in
cigarette smoke.
• An aniline azo dye Used in rubber
industry: ca.bladder.
• Synthesized in gut from ingested
nitrites or derived from digested
proteins: gastric cancer
• Stilbesterol.
• Mold.-- potent hepatic
carcinogen.
14. Oncogenes
Genes of viral origin which causes transformation of
target cell.
Rous 1911 ------ got Nobel prize in 1966
Sarcoma virus
DNA
RNA –mostly of retroviruses
15. Oncogenes play a crucial role in carcinogenesis
Oncogenes of Rous sarcoma virus:
gag pol env src
gag: Codes for group specific antigen
Pol: Reverse transcriptase
Env: certain glycoprotein of viral envelop
Src: protein tyrosine kinase
16. Mechanism of infective retrovirus formation
C DNA or
provirus
Retrovirus
Reverse transcriptase
Cell
Viral DNA
1.
17. Host DNA
Becomes a part of host DNA
1a.
Process of integration of viral genes into cellular DNA
Viral DNA
18. Mechanism by which proto-oncogene become oncogene
Proto-oncogene is the normal non mutated cellular
analog of oncogene.
1.
LTR
myc
myc
LTR
Provirus
Myc mRNA
e.g. Avian leukemia virus
Promotor insertion:
20. 3. Translocation
Chromosome 4
Chromosome 4
Chromosome 20
Chromosome 20
Before After
In chronic granulocytic leukemia: Translocation between 9th and 22nd chromosome.
21. Break
Break
Gene for
H –Chains
myc gene
myc gene
Burkitt’s Lymphoma: chromosomal translocation
8 8 8
14 14 14
Heavy chains
Of immunoglobulin
22. 5. Gene amplification:
Observed in many tumors.
e.g . Methotrexate administration : leukemia
Inhibitor of dihydrofolate reductase
Dihydrofolate Tetra hydrofolate
- ---- required for sythesis of purines & thymine
Tumor cells become resistant to this drug
Gene for dihydrofolate reductase becomes amplified
resulting in 400 fold increase in activity.
23. 5. Single point mutation
V-ras oncogene --------murine retrovirus
polypeptide related to G protein
modulates the activity
adenylate cyclase
role in cellular responses of hormones & drugs
C- ras oncogene -------DNA sequencing of C-ras protooncogene
Normal human bladder cells cancer of human bladder cells
Substitution of amino acid in 12 or 61 position results in GTPase
Chronic stimulation on adenylate cyclase
24. Mechanism of action of oncogenes:
1. Autocrine mechanism--- oncogene product is growth factor*
*
Over stimulation
2. Oncogene alters the receptor---- receptor is permanently turn on without
growth factor binding.
3. Transducer alteration:
Transduction –change in genetic make up of a cell
by transfer of viral DNA to cell.
Change in GTPase stimulatory protein Permanently turn on
results in uncoupling of normal
ligand receptor binding.
25. Tumor suppressor genes Or
Antioncogenes
Protect an individual from getting cancer.
Deletion removes the growth control of cells and
Believed to be a key factor in the development of tumor.
P⁵³ ----Absent in most tumors
RB gene ( retinoblastoma gene) located in chromosome 13
DCC gene--- Ca colon
26. Tumor markers.
The biochemical indicators employed to detect the presence of
cancer are collectively referred to as tumor markers.
- Abnormally produced molecules by tumor cells .
Eg. Surface antigens
cytoplasmic proteins
Enzymes
Hormones
27. Tumor markers.
Marker Associated cancer(s)
Oncofetal antigens
carcinoembryonic antigen(CEA)------------Colon, Stomach, Breast, Lung and Pancreas
alpha fetoprotein (AFP) ------------Liver and germ cells of testis
Cancer antigen ( CA 125) ------------Ovarian cancer of epithelial origin.
Prostate specific antigen ------------Prostate cancer
Hormons
Calcitonin ------------CA of medullary thyroid
Catecholamines and their
metabolites (VMA) -------------Neuroblastoma
Enzymes
Prosthetic acid phosphatase ------------ Prostate cancer
Neuron specific enolase ------------Neuroblastoma
Alkaline phosphatase(ALP) ------------Bone secondary's
Specific Proteins
Immunoglobulin ----------- multiple myeloma