To make the probe, researchers would isolate DNA from the region of interest and label it radioactively, usually with 32P. This radioactive probe could then be used to screen the library and identify clones containing complementary DNA sequences.
This document outlines key concepts and objectives related to genetics, genetic engineering, and biotechnology. It discusses techniques like PCR, gel electrophoresis, and DNA profiling. It also describes gene transfer methods using plasmids, restriction enzymes, and DNA ligase. Examples of genetic modification in animals and plants are provided. The document discusses cloning techniques, creating recombinant DNA, and potential benefits and ethical issues related to genetic engineering.
This document outlines topics related to genetics and genetic engineering, including:
1. Using PCR and gel electrophoresis to analyze and separate DNA fragments.
2. Techniques for genetic engineering like using plasmids, restriction enzymes, and DNA ligase to transfer genes between organisms.
3. Examples of genetically modified crops and animals, and potential benefits and risks of genetic modification.
This document provides a summary of a lecture on cell cycle regulation and cancer. It discusses the following key points:
1. The cell cycle consists of interphase (G1, S, G2 phases) and mitosis (M phase), with checkpoints to monitor progression. Cyclins and CDKs are key regulators that determine cell cycle progression.
2. Cancer is characterized by uncontrolled cell division and growth. It can be caused by genetic mutations in oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes, or by environmental carcinogens like radiation and chemicals.
3. Oncogenes promote cell division when hyperactivated, like growth factors and cyclins. Tumor suppressors normally inhibit the cell cycle, like p53
Genetics of cancer can involve mutations in three classes of genes: proto-oncogenes that become activated oncogenes and promote uncontrolled growth; tumor suppressor genes like RB and p53 that normally inhibit cell growth but are inactivated by mutations; and mutator genes involved in DNA repair that increase mutation rates when defective. The two-hit model of cancer explains that mutations in both copies of tumor suppressor genes are required for tumor formation.
CONFERENCE 5-Techniques in Genetic Engineering.pptDicksonDaniel7
This document describes genetic engineering techniques such as selective breeding, recombinant DNA, PCR, and transgenic organisms. It explains how recombinant DNA technology uses restriction enzymes and DNA ligases to insert DNA fragments into cloning vectors, which are then inserted into host bacteria for replication. This allows mass production of useful proteins like insulin. The document also discusses how Agrobacterium tumefaciens and its Ti plasmid are widely used vectors to introduce foreign DNA into plant cells and genomes. In summary, the document outlines genetic engineering methods and how they have been applied to biotechnology and agriculture.
This document provides an overview of DNA cloning including:
1. The basic steps in DNA cloning including isolation of vector and gene source DNA, insertion into the vector, and introduction into cells.
2. Uses of polymerase chain reaction and restriction enzymes in cloning.
3. Applications of cloning such as recombinant protein production, genetically modified organisms, DNA fingerprinting, and gene therapy.
Cancer is caused by defects in cell division that result from genetic mutations. Normal cell growth becomes unregulated, as cells multiply uncontrollably and crowd out healthy tissue. If cancer cells invade surrounding areas or spread to other parts of the body through metastasis and angiogenesis, it is considered malignant. Staging and grading of tumors helps determine prognosis and appropriate treatment options like surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, or targeted therapies.
Cloning and subcloning are techniques used in molecular biology. Cloning involves isolating a gene and inserting it into a vector for propagation. Subcloning moves a gene from one vector to another. The document discusses the history of cloning, types of cloning including DNA cloning, reproductive cloning and therapeutic cloning. It provides details on the basic steps for cloning such as isolation of the gene, insertion into a vector, transformation, identification and expression of the cloned gene. Subcloning involves using restriction enzymes to excise a gene from one vector and ligate it into another vector. The document outlines the procedure and applications of both cloning and subcloning techniques.
This document outlines key concepts and objectives related to genetics, genetic engineering, and biotechnology. It discusses techniques like PCR, gel electrophoresis, and DNA profiling. It also describes gene transfer methods using plasmids, restriction enzymes, and DNA ligase. Examples of genetic modification in animals and plants are provided. The document discusses cloning techniques, creating recombinant DNA, and potential benefits and ethical issues related to genetic engineering.
This document outlines topics related to genetics and genetic engineering, including:
1. Using PCR and gel electrophoresis to analyze and separate DNA fragments.
2. Techniques for genetic engineering like using plasmids, restriction enzymes, and DNA ligase to transfer genes between organisms.
3. Examples of genetically modified crops and animals, and potential benefits and risks of genetic modification.
This document provides a summary of a lecture on cell cycle regulation and cancer. It discusses the following key points:
1. The cell cycle consists of interphase (G1, S, G2 phases) and mitosis (M phase), with checkpoints to monitor progression. Cyclins and CDKs are key regulators that determine cell cycle progression.
2. Cancer is characterized by uncontrolled cell division and growth. It can be caused by genetic mutations in oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes, or by environmental carcinogens like radiation and chemicals.
3. Oncogenes promote cell division when hyperactivated, like growth factors and cyclins. Tumor suppressors normally inhibit the cell cycle, like p53
Genetics of cancer can involve mutations in three classes of genes: proto-oncogenes that become activated oncogenes and promote uncontrolled growth; tumor suppressor genes like RB and p53 that normally inhibit cell growth but are inactivated by mutations; and mutator genes involved in DNA repair that increase mutation rates when defective. The two-hit model of cancer explains that mutations in both copies of tumor suppressor genes are required for tumor formation.
CONFERENCE 5-Techniques in Genetic Engineering.pptDicksonDaniel7
This document describes genetic engineering techniques such as selective breeding, recombinant DNA, PCR, and transgenic organisms. It explains how recombinant DNA technology uses restriction enzymes and DNA ligases to insert DNA fragments into cloning vectors, which are then inserted into host bacteria for replication. This allows mass production of useful proteins like insulin. The document also discusses how Agrobacterium tumefaciens and its Ti plasmid are widely used vectors to introduce foreign DNA into plant cells and genomes. In summary, the document outlines genetic engineering methods and how they have been applied to biotechnology and agriculture.
This document provides an overview of DNA cloning including:
1. The basic steps in DNA cloning including isolation of vector and gene source DNA, insertion into the vector, and introduction into cells.
2. Uses of polymerase chain reaction and restriction enzymes in cloning.
3. Applications of cloning such as recombinant protein production, genetically modified organisms, DNA fingerprinting, and gene therapy.
Cancer is caused by defects in cell division that result from genetic mutations. Normal cell growth becomes unregulated, as cells multiply uncontrollably and crowd out healthy tissue. If cancer cells invade surrounding areas or spread to other parts of the body through metastasis and angiogenesis, it is considered malignant. Staging and grading of tumors helps determine prognosis and appropriate treatment options like surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, or targeted therapies.
Cloning and subcloning are techniques used in molecular biology. Cloning involves isolating a gene and inserting it into a vector for propagation. Subcloning moves a gene from one vector to another. The document discusses the history of cloning, types of cloning including DNA cloning, reproductive cloning and therapeutic cloning. It provides details on the basic steps for cloning such as isolation of the gene, insertion into a vector, transformation, identification and expression of the cloned gene. Subcloning involves using restriction enzymes to excise a gene from one vector and ligate it into another vector. The document outlines the procedure and applications of both cloning and subcloning techniques.
The document provides an overview of DNA technology and biotechnology. It discusses how DNA cloning allows scientists to make multiple copies of genes and study their structure, expression, and function. Key techniques described include recombinant DNA, restriction enzymes, gel electrophoresis, and DNA sequencing. Applications mentioned include genetic engineering of plants, microorganisms, and animals for research, agriculture, medicine, forensics, and environmental cleanup.
This document provides information about cancer genetics and cell biology. It defines cancer as uncontrolled cell growth and classifies tumors as benign or malignant. The main cancer types - carcinomas, sarcomas, and leukemias/lymphomas - are described based on their cell of origin. Key concepts in cancer development are discussed, including the roles of oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, DNA repair genes, and failures in cell cycle control. Cancer results from mutations that disable normal controls on cell growth and division.
This document discusses genetic engineering and biotechnology. It begins by defining genetic engineering as the manipulation of genes, usually outside an organism's natural reproductive process. It then discusses chromosomes and mutations, including examples of chromosome numbers in different species. Techniques for genetic engineering are explained, such as restriction enzymes and bacterial transformation. Applications include creating transgenic bacteria, plants, and animals. Ethical issues related to genetic engineering are also reviewed.
All about genes oncogenes mutations-cloning-gene therapyAhmed Amer
1) DNA contains the genetic code and is located in chromosomes within the nucleus. DNA is transcribed into RNA and translated into proteins, which allows genes to be expressed.
2) Mutations in genes can be caused by errors in DNA replication or exposure to mutagens and can have neutral, harmful, or beneficial effects depending on where they occur. Mutations in proto-oncogenes can transform them into oncogenes and promote cancer development.
3) Cloning techniques allow for the duplication of DNA, whole organisms, or embryonic stem cells for research and potential therapies. Gene cloning is used to study and modify genes, while reproductive and therapeutic cloning are more controversial due to ethical concerns.
Malignant tumors are cancerous and can invade nearby tissues, spread to other parts of the body through the bloodstream, and form new tumors (metastasis). Benign tumors are not cancerous, do not invade tissues or spread, and can be surgically removed without threat to life. Cancer cells have characteristics like sustained growth signaling, evading growth suppression, resisting cell death, increased replication ability, inducing angiogenesis, and spreading to other areas (metastasis). These characteristics arise through genetic mutations that alter the functions of oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes.
Biotechnology refers to the use of living organisms or their components to develop products and processes. It has applications in fields like agriculture, medicine, and industry. Modern biotechnology techniques include genetic engineering and aseptic techniques. Genetic engineering involves altering genetic material through techniques like recombinant DNA, gene transfer into host organisms, and gene cloning. It allows scientists to modify organisms for useful purposes. Restriction enzymes, vectors, DNA polymerase and ligase are important tools used in genetic engineering and recombinant DNA technology.
Cancer arises due to genetic aberrations that accumulate in somatic cells and alter gene expression. There are several types of genomic changes including mutations, chromosome defects, and changes to oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes. Genetic testing can identify inherited cancer risk genes and guide diagnosis and treatment, while gene therapy holds promise for directly treating cancer at the genetic level.
Cell cycle,growth regulation ,molecular basis of cancer by dr.Tasnimdr Tasnim
The document discusses cell cycle regulation and carcinogenesis. It can be summarized as follows:
1. The cell cycle is regulated by cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), which help cells advance through different stages. External growth factors and internal factors like cyclins and kinases control progression.
2. Carcinogenesis is a multistep process caused by accumulating genetic mutations that alter genes regulating cell growth, apoptosis, and DNA repair. These mutations activate oncogenes and inactivate tumor suppressor genes.
3. For malignant transformation, tumors acquire self-sufficiency in growth signals, insensitivity to growth inhibitors, evasion of apoptosis, limitless replication, angiogenesis, invasion and metastasis
Genetically engineered bacteria: chemical factories of the future?Greg Crowther
Genetically engineered bacteria show promise as chemical factories of the future by using metabolic engineering techniques. Bacteria can be redesigned through genetic modifications like deleting or adding genes to optimize their metabolism for producing valuable chemicals. While challenging, this approach could make chemical production more sustainable and environmentally friendly by using renewable biomass as a starting material. Careful modeling and testing is needed to understand bacterial metabolism and avoid unintended consequences, as cellular processes are complexly interconnected. Significant research remains before engineered bacteria can fulfill their potential at an industrial scale.
Genetic engineering principle, tools, techniques, types and applicationTarun Kapoor
Basic principles of genetic engineering.
Study of cloning vectors, restriction endonucleases and DNA ligase.
Recombinant DNA technology. Application of genetic engineering in medicine.
Application of r DNA technology and genetic engineering in the products:
a. Interferon
b. Vaccines- hepatitis- B
c. Hormones- Insulin.
Polymerase chain reaction
Brief introduction to PCR
Basic principles of PCR
Roughly based on Chapter 11 Biotechnology: Principles and Processes and Chapter 12 Biotechnology and its Applications of Class 12 NCERT for final brush-up before the exams
4. molecular basis of cancer dr. sinhasan, mdzahkciapm
This document discusses the multistep process of carcinogenesis. It involves nonlethal genetic damage through DNA damaging agents or inherited mutations that affect genes regulating DNA repair, cell growth, and apoptosis. This can lead to mutations in somatic cells and alterations in genes controlling growth and apoptosis. If DNA repair fails, altered gene expression and loss of regulatory genes can cause clonal expansion and additional mutations, resulting in tumor heterogeneity. Tumors are monoclonal, arising from a single mutated precursor cell.
This document discusses various types of cloning vectors used in genetic engineering experiments. It begins by describing the basic features a vector must possess, including the ability to self-replicate and contain selectable markers. It then focuses on plasmids, noting that E. coli is commonly used as a host and that vectors like pBR322 were early workhorses. Later sections cover lambda phage vectors, cosmids, YACs, and BACs, which can accommodate larger DNA fragments. The document provides detailed information on widely used vectors like pUC, M13, and their features to replicate, package DNA, and enable cloning experiments.
This document discusses cancer and its causes at a cellular level. It describes how cancer develops from normal cells transforming into abnormal cells that destroy normal tissue. Cancer results from oncogene activation and anti-oncogene diminishment due to mutations from environmental factors like radiation, chemicals, viruses, and lifestyle factors. Oncogenes are genes that cause cell transformation, often originating from viruses. They can become activated through mutations that alter gene expression or protein function. Tumor suppressor genes normally inhibit cell growth but are deactivated in cancer. The document also outlines several tumor markers - abnormally produced molecules - that can indicate certain cancer types.
Cloning vectors are small DNA molecules used to replicate, amplify and express inserted DNA fragments. There are several types of cloning vectors including plasmids, bacteriophages, cosmids, and artificial chromosomes. Plasmids are the most commonly used cloning vectors as they can replicate autonomously in bacterial cells, contain selectable markers, and accept DNA insert sizes up to 10kb. Bacteriophages such as lambda can accept larger inserts up to 20kb but have a narrow host range. Cosmids combine properties of plasmids and phages to accept inserts up to 50kb.
This document provides an overview of DNA cloning. It discusses taking a gene of interest from a source DNA, inserting it into a vector such as a plasmid, and using this recombinant DNA to transform bacteria. This allows the gene of interest to be replicated in large quantities. Key steps include using restriction enzymes to cut the DNA pieces for ligation, transforming bacteria with the recombinant plasmid, and selecting for bacteria containing the cloned gene insert. The goal of cloning is to generate multiple copies of a gene for study and protein production.
Recombinant DNA (rDNA) refers to DNA molecules formed by combining genetic material from multiple sources. Basic techniques for creating rDNA include using restriction enzymes to cut DNA at specific sites, vectors to transport DNA into host cells, and DNA ligase to join DNA fragments. Important applications of rDNA technology include producing insulin, vaccines, and proteins as well as creating pest-resistant plants. Site-directed mutagenesis allows researchers to precisely introduce mutations at specific locations in DNA, while random mutagenesis introduces random mutations throughout DNA.
This document summarizes oncogenesis, the process by which normal cells are transformed into cancer cells. It discusses how proto-oncogenes can become activated oncogenes through mutations, increased expression, or chromosomal rearrangements. Oncogenes code for proteins involved in cell growth and division. The document also describes various causes of oncogenesis like genetic/epigenetic changes, DNA damage from endogenous or exogenous sources, field defects, and oncogenic viruses that activate proto-oncogenes or inactivate tumor suppressor genes. The mechanisms of viral oncogenesis and classification of viral oncogenes into growth factors, receptors, signal transducers and transcription factors are summarized as well.
The document discusses HLA typing methods. It describes the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) which contains the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) genes. HLA typing is important for transplant matching. Methods include serology using lymphocyte cytotoxicity, as well as molecular techniques like PCR with sequence-specific primers or probes and sequence-based typing for highest resolution. Each method has advantages and limitations in resolution and reliance on viable cells. Combining methods can resolve discrepancies.
This document discusses lipids, which are concentrated energy molecules that serve several functions in biology. Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, and hormones. They are used for energy storage and provide twice the energy of carbohydrates. Lipids also make up cell membranes and help cushion and insulate organs. Saturated fats from animals are solid at room temperature and contribute to heart disease, while unsaturated fats from plants and fish are liquid and are a healthier choice. Cell membranes contain phospholipids that form a barrier for the cell, with hydrophilic heads on the outside and hydrophobic tails on the inside.
This document discusses lipids and membranes. It describes the basic structures of lipids like fatty acids, glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, and cholesterol. These lipids can assemble into structures like micelles and bilayers in aqueous environments due to their amphipathic nature. Bilayers allow for the formation of cell membranes. Membranes contain proteins that can be integral, peripheral, or lipid-anchored. Lipid composition and proteins influence membrane properties like fluidity.
The document provides an overview of DNA technology and biotechnology. It discusses how DNA cloning allows scientists to make multiple copies of genes and study their structure, expression, and function. Key techniques described include recombinant DNA, restriction enzymes, gel electrophoresis, and DNA sequencing. Applications mentioned include genetic engineering of plants, microorganisms, and animals for research, agriculture, medicine, forensics, and environmental cleanup.
This document provides information about cancer genetics and cell biology. It defines cancer as uncontrolled cell growth and classifies tumors as benign or malignant. The main cancer types - carcinomas, sarcomas, and leukemias/lymphomas - are described based on their cell of origin. Key concepts in cancer development are discussed, including the roles of oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, DNA repair genes, and failures in cell cycle control. Cancer results from mutations that disable normal controls on cell growth and division.
This document discusses genetic engineering and biotechnology. It begins by defining genetic engineering as the manipulation of genes, usually outside an organism's natural reproductive process. It then discusses chromosomes and mutations, including examples of chromosome numbers in different species. Techniques for genetic engineering are explained, such as restriction enzymes and bacterial transformation. Applications include creating transgenic bacteria, plants, and animals. Ethical issues related to genetic engineering are also reviewed.
All about genes oncogenes mutations-cloning-gene therapyAhmed Amer
1) DNA contains the genetic code and is located in chromosomes within the nucleus. DNA is transcribed into RNA and translated into proteins, which allows genes to be expressed.
2) Mutations in genes can be caused by errors in DNA replication or exposure to mutagens and can have neutral, harmful, or beneficial effects depending on where they occur. Mutations in proto-oncogenes can transform them into oncogenes and promote cancer development.
3) Cloning techniques allow for the duplication of DNA, whole organisms, or embryonic stem cells for research and potential therapies. Gene cloning is used to study and modify genes, while reproductive and therapeutic cloning are more controversial due to ethical concerns.
Malignant tumors are cancerous and can invade nearby tissues, spread to other parts of the body through the bloodstream, and form new tumors (metastasis). Benign tumors are not cancerous, do not invade tissues or spread, and can be surgically removed without threat to life. Cancer cells have characteristics like sustained growth signaling, evading growth suppression, resisting cell death, increased replication ability, inducing angiogenesis, and spreading to other areas (metastasis). These characteristics arise through genetic mutations that alter the functions of oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes.
Biotechnology refers to the use of living organisms or their components to develop products and processes. It has applications in fields like agriculture, medicine, and industry. Modern biotechnology techniques include genetic engineering and aseptic techniques. Genetic engineering involves altering genetic material through techniques like recombinant DNA, gene transfer into host organisms, and gene cloning. It allows scientists to modify organisms for useful purposes. Restriction enzymes, vectors, DNA polymerase and ligase are important tools used in genetic engineering and recombinant DNA technology.
Cancer arises due to genetic aberrations that accumulate in somatic cells and alter gene expression. There are several types of genomic changes including mutations, chromosome defects, and changes to oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes. Genetic testing can identify inherited cancer risk genes and guide diagnosis and treatment, while gene therapy holds promise for directly treating cancer at the genetic level.
Cell cycle,growth regulation ,molecular basis of cancer by dr.Tasnimdr Tasnim
The document discusses cell cycle regulation and carcinogenesis. It can be summarized as follows:
1. The cell cycle is regulated by cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), which help cells advance through different stages. External growth factors and internal factors like cyclins and kinases control progression.
2. Carcinogenesis is a multistep process caused by accumulating genetic mutations that alter genes regulating cell growth, apoptosis, and DNA repair. These mutations activate oncogenes and inactivate tumor suppressor genes.
3. For malignant transformation, tumors acquire self-sufficiency in growth signals, insensitivity to growth inhibitors, evasion of apoptosis, limitless replication, angiogenesis, invasion and metastasis
Genetically engineered bacteria: chemical factories of the future?Greg Crowther
Genetically engineered bacteria show promise as chemical factories of the future by using metabolic engineering techniques. Bacteria can be redesigned through genetic modifications like deleting or adding genes to optimize their metabolism for producing valuable chemicals. While challenging, this approach could make chemical production more sustainable and environmentally friendly by using renewable biomass as a starting material. Careful modeling and testing is needed to understand bacterial metabolism and avoid unintended consequences, as cellular processes are complexly interconnected. Significant research remains before engineered bacteria can fulfill their potential at an industrial scale.
Genetic engineering principle, tools, techniques, types and applicationTarun Kapoor
Basic principles of genetic engineering.
Study of cloning vectors, restriction endonucleases and DNA ligase.
Recombinant DNA technology. Application of genetic engineering in medicine.
Application of r DNA technology and genetic engineering in the products:
a. Interferon
b. Vaccines- hepatitis- B
c. Hormones- Insulin.
Polymerase chain reaction
Brief introduction to PCR
Basic principles of PCR
Roughly based on Chapter 11 Biotechnology: Principles and Processes and Chapter 12 Biotechnology and its Applications of Class 12 NCERT for final brush-up before the exams
4. molecular basis of cancer dr. sinhasan, mdzahkciapm
This document discusses the multistep process of carcinogenesis. It involves nonlethal genetic damage through DNA damaging agents or inherited mutations that affect genes regulating DNA repair, cell growth, and apoptosis. This can lead to mutations in somatic cells and alterations in genes controlling growth and apoptosis. If DNA repair fails, altered gene expression and loss of regulatory genes can cause clonal expansion and additional mutations, resulting in tumor heterogeneity. Tumors are monoclonal, arising from a single mutated precursor cell.
This document discusses various types of cloning vectors used in genetic engineering experiments. It begins by describing the basic features a vector must possess, including the ability to self-replicate and contain selectable markers. It then focuses on plasmids, noting that E. coli is commonly used as a host and that vectors like pBR322 were early workhorses. Later sections cover lambda phage vectors, cosmids, YACs, and BACs, which can accommodate larger DNA fragments. The document provides detailed information on widely used vectors like pUC, M13, and their features to replicate, package DNA, and enable cloning experiments.
This document discusses cancer and its causes at a cellular level. It describes how cancer develops from normal cells transforming into abnormal cells that destroy normal tissue. Cancer results from oncogene activation and anti-oncogene diminishment due to mutations from environmental factors like radiation, chemicals, viruses, and lifestyle factors. Oncogenes are genes that cause cell transformation, often originating from viruses. They can become activated through mutations that alter gene expression or protein function. Tumor suppressor genes normally inhibit cell growth but are deactivated in cancer. The document also outlines several tumor markers - abnormally produced molecules - that can indicate certain cancer types.
Cloning vectors are small DNA molecules used to replicate, amplify and express inserted DNA fragments. There are several types of cloning vectors including plasmids, bacteriophages, cosmids, and artificial chromosomes. Plasmids are the most commonly used cloning vectors as they can replicate autonomously in bacterial cells, contain selectable markers, and accept DNA insert sizes up to 10kb. Bacteriophages such as lambda can accept larger inserts up to 20kb but have a narrow host range. Cosmids combine properties of plasmids and phages to accept inserts up to 50kb.
This document provides an overview of DNA cloning. It discusses taking a gene of interest from a source DNA, inserting it into a vector such as a plasmid, and using this recombinant DNA to transform bacteria. This allows the gene of interest to be replicated in large quantities. Key steps include using restriction enzymes to cut the DNA pieces for ligation, transforming bacteria with the recombinant plasmid, and selecting for bacteria containing the cloned gene insert. The goal of cloning is to generate multiple copies of a gene for study and protein production.
Recombinant DNA (rDNA) refers to DNA molecules formed by combining genetic material from multiple sources. Basic techniques for creating rDNA include using restriction enzymes to cut DNA at specific sites, vectors to transport DNA into host cells, and DNA ligase to join DNA fragments. Important applications of rDNA technology include producing insulin, vaccines, and proteins as well as creating pest-resistant plants. Site-directed mutagenesis allows researchers to precisely introduce mutations at specific locations in DNA, while random mutagenesis introduces random mutations throughout DNA.
This document summarizes oncogenesis, the process by which normal cells are transformed into cancer cells. It discusses how proto-oncogenes can become activated oncogenes through mutations, increased expression, or chromosomal rearrangements. Oncogenes code for proteins involved in cell growth and division. The document also describes various causes of oncogenesis like genetic/epigenetic changes, DNA damage from endogenous or exogenous sources, field defects, and oncogenic viruses that activate proto-oncogenes or inactivate tumor suppressor genes. The mechanisms of viral oncogenesis and classification of viral oncogenes into growth factors, receptors, signal transducers and transcription factors are summarized as well.
The document discusses HLA typing methods. It describes the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) which contains the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) genes. HLA typing is important for transplant matching. Methods include serology using lymphocyte cytotoxicity, as well as molecular techniques like PCR with sequence-specific primers or probes and sequence-based typing for highest resolution. Each method has advantages and limitations in resolution and reliance on viable cells. Combining methods can resolve discrepancies.
This document discusses lipids, which are concentrated energy molecules that serve several functions in biology. Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, and hormones. They are used for energy storage and provide twice the energy of carbohydrates. Lipids also make up cell membranes and help cushion and insulate organs. Saturated fats from animals are solid at room temperature and contribute to heart disease, while unsaturated fats from plants and fish are liquid and are a healthier choice. Cell membranes contain phospholipids that form a barrier for the cell, with hydrophilic heads on the outside and hydrophobic tails on the inside.
This document discusses lipids and membranes. It describes the basic structures of lipids like fatty acids, glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, and cholesterol. These lipids can assemble into structures like micelles and bilayers in aqueous environments due to their amphipathic nature. Bilayers allow for the formation of cell membranes. Membranes contain proteins that can be integral, peripheral, or lipid-anchored. Lipid composition and proteins influence membrane properties like fluidity.
The document discusses the evolution of cell membranes from early RNA molecules clinging to clay particles to the modern fluid mosaic model. Key events include the formation of lipid bilayers that separated internal and external chemistry, allowing more efficient reactions. Experiments showed lipids spontaneously forming enclosed compartments and lipid bilayers with integral membrane proteins that gave membranes a mosaic-like structure. The fluid mosaic model proposes membranes are fluid with lipids and proteins able to diffuse freely within the plane of the bilayer. Transport proteins like channels and carriers allow selective permeability while pumps use ATP to transport molecules against gradients.
This document provides information about lipids and fatty acids. It defines lipids as biomolecules that contain fatty acids or a steroid nucleus and are soluble in organic solvents but not water. There are different types of lipids containing fatty acids, including waxes, fats and oils (triacylglycerols), glycerophospholipids, and prostaglandins. Fatty acids are long-chain carboxylic acids that can be saturated or unsaturated. Fats and oils are esters of glycerol and three fatty acids called triacylglycerols. Unsaturated fatty acids have kinks that prevent close packing, giving oils and unsaturated fats lower melting points than saturated fats. Hydrogen
The octapeptide contains the amino acids A, C, D, G, L, M, S. Enzyme digestion and mass spectrometry identify the fragments D-C-M, A-S, C-M-A, S-G-A, and L-D. This information determines the primary structure is L-A-G-S-D-C-M-A. Secondary structure is based on bond rotations forming elements like alpha helices and beta pleated sheets. Tertiary structure describes the overall shape from peptide chain folding while quaternary structure involves interactions of multiple protein subunits.
This chapter discusses protein therapeutics including recombinant proteins and monoclonal antibodies. It provides examples of recombinant proteins approved for human use to treat disorders like hemophilia, diabetes, and cystic fibrosis. The chapter outlines different expression systems used to produce recombinant proteins, including bacteria, yeast, insect, and mammalian cells. It also describes the structure of antibodies and the development of monoclonal antibodies as therapeutic agents, from mouse antibodies to humanized antibodies to reduce immunogenicity.
Proteins are made up of chains of amino acids and are essential to many bodily functions. Amino acids link together through peptide bonds and proteins fold into complex three-dimensional shapes that determine their specific roles. Both insufficient and excessive protein intake can be harmful, so a balanced diet containing moderate protein is recommended.
This document provides an overview of amino acids, peptides, and proteins. It discusses the 20 standard amino acids, including their structures, properties, and classifications. Peptide bond formation between amino acids is described. Peptides are defined as short chains of amino acids, with examples of peptide functions. Proteins are introduced as longer polymers made up of amino acids that may also contain cofactors or modifications. The learning goals cover the key aspects of amino acid and peptide structures and properties.
Protein folding is the process by which a protein goes from an unfolded state to its biologically active three-dimensional structure. It is important to understand protein folding to help predict protein structures from sequence alone and to understand diseases caused by protein misfolding. Proteins typically fold through progressive formation of native-like structures rather than through a random search. Molecular chaperones help other proteins fold within cells. Misfolded proteins can form amyloid fibrils associated with diseases. Computational methods aim to predict protein structures from sequence using fragment libraries and modeling protein energy landscapes. Protein design techniques aim to computationally modify protein sequences to achieve desired stabilities, functions, and binding properties.
This document discusses protein classification and structure. It defines protein classification as grouping proteins based on structure, function or size. Proteins can have domains and subunits. They come in globular, fibrous, and other shapes. Proteins are linked within and between polypeptide chains using covalent bonds. Proteins bind other molecules specifically through interactions like ionic bonds. Binding allows proteins to regulate activity and form complexes with other molecules like opsins.
Heat shock proteins (HSPs) help other proteins properly fold and function. HSP90 and HSP70 are molecular chaperones that work sequentially to fold proteins in the cytoplasm. Misfolded proteins can cause disease. HSP90 helps buffer hidden genetic variations but under stress these variations are expressed and can lead to morphological changes. HSP90 is highly conserved across species and plays a role in evolution by allowing traits to change in response to stress. Current research studies HSP90 to better understand protein misfolding diseases.
1. Enzymes are biological catalysts that lower the activation energy of reactions and increase reaction rates. They are often proteins that contain cofactors.
2. Enzymes are classified based on the type of reaction they catalyze, such as oxidation-reduction, hydrolysis, or transfer of chemical groups. Common enzyme names end in "-ase".
3. The lock and key model describes how enzymes bind specifically to substrates in their active sites to form enzyme-substrate complexes. In the induced fit model, the enzyme structure changes to better fit the substrate.
Protein structures are classified to generate overviews of structure types and detect evolutionary relationships. Major classification schemes include SCOP, CATH, and FSSP. SCOP classifies proteins into classes, folds, superfamilies, and families based on structural and sequence similarities. CATH also uses a hierarchical system of classes, architectures, topologies, and superfamilies. FSSP provides fully automated and updated structural alignments and classifications.
This document discusses proteins from a chemist's perspective. It describes how proteins are made of amino acids, with 20 standard types but only 9 being essential. The unique side groups of each amino acid determine their individual properties. Protein structure and function depend on the specific amino acid sequence. Amino acids are linked through peptide bonds to form proteins. The document also covers protein digestion and roles of proteins in the body.
This document discusses protein structure and synthesis. It begins by describing the primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures of proteins. This includes the structures of alpha helices, beta sheets, turns, and domains. It then discusses protein translation, noting that proteins begin folding as they emerge from the ribosome in a co-translational manner. The final section discusses protein folding and some of the challenges of the folding process.
The document discusses heat shock proteins (Hsps), Hsp90 inhibitors, and protein degradation. It provides background on protein degradation mechanisms and heat shock proteins. Hsp90 plays a key role in cancer cell survival by regulating oncogenic signaling proteins. Hsp90 inhibitors like geldanamycin and 17-AAG bind Hsp90's ATP binding site, altering its function and inducing degradation of client proteins, stopping cancer cell growth. The paper found that tumor Hsp90 exclusively exists in active multichaperone complexes, conferring higher binding affinity for 17-AAG compared to normal cell Hsp90. This activated conformation in tumor cells represents a unique drug target.
This document summarizes protein therapeutics and provides a pharmacological classification. It notes that the human genome contains 25,000-40,000 genes that can undergo alternative splicing and post-translational modifications, resulting in a very high number of functionally distinct proteins. Protein therapeutics are classified into 4 groups based on their function: group I includes proteins with enzymatic or regulatory activity, group II targets specific molecules or organisms, group III are protein vaccines, and group IV are protein diagnostics. The document outlines some advantages of protein therapeutics but also challenges including solubility, immune response, stability, and costs.
1. Proteins are made up of amino acids and take on specific three-dimensional structures that dictate their function. Determining a protein's structure is important for understanding its role in biological processes.
2. There are several methods for determining and predicting protein structure, including X-ray crystallography, NMR, and computational methods like homology modeling or ab initio structure prediction.
3. Protein structure is hierarchical, ranging from secondary structure like alpha helices and beta sheets to the overall fold classified in databases like SCOP and CATH. Predicting secondary structure is easier than predicting a protein's full three-dimensional structure.
Amino acids are organic compounds that contain an amino group and a carboxyl group. There are 20 different amino acids that serve as the building blocks of proteins. Amino acids link together through peptide bonds to form polypeptide chains that fold into complex three-dimensional protein structures. Proteins serve essential functions and 10 of the 20 amino acids must be obtained through diet as humans cannot synthesize them. Common protein tests identify the presence of proteins using reactions that detect peptide bonds, amino acid side chains, or disulfide bridges.
- Proteins are made up of amino acids, which are the building blocks. There are 20 different amino acids, some are essential and must be obtained through diet.
- The specific sequence of amino acids determines the 3D shape of a protein and its function. Denaturation occurs when proteins lose their shape due to heat, acid, etc.
- Proteins serve many important functions in the body including structure, enzymes, transport, hormones, antibodies, and more. An inadequate intake can result in the body breaking down its own proteins to obtain energy.
Promoting Wellbeing - Applied Social Psychology - Psychology SuperNotesPsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
Rasamanikya is a excellent preparation in the field of Rasashastra, it is used in various Kushtha Roga, Shwasa, Vicharchika, Bhagandara, Vatarakta, and Phiranga Roga. In this article Preparation& Comparative analytical profile for both Formulationon i.e Rasamanikya prepared by Kushmanda swarasa & Churnodhaka Shodita Haratala. The study aims to provide insights into the comparative efficacy and analytical aspects of these formulations for enhanced therapeutic outcomes.
Here is the updated list of Top Best Ayurvedic medicine for Gas and Indigestion and those are Gas-O-Go Syp for Dyspepsia | Lavizyme Syrup for Acidity | Yumzyme Hepatoprotective Capsules etc
Clinic ^%[+27633867063*Abortion Pills For Sale In Tembisa Central19various
Clinic ^%[+27633867063*Abortion Pills For Sale In Tembisa Central Clinic ^%[+27633867063*Abortion Pills For Sale In Tembisa CentralClinic ^%[+27633867063*Abortion Pills For Sale In Tembisa CentralClinic ^%[+27633867063*Abortion Pills For Sale In Tembisa CentralClinic ^%[+27633867063*Abortion Pills For Sale In Tembisa Central
Integrating Ayurveda into Parkinson’s Management: A Holistic ApproachAyurveda ForAll
Explore the benefits of combining Ayurveda with conventional Parkinson's treatments. Learn how a holistic approach can manage symptoms, enhance well-being, and balance body energies. Discover the steps to safely integrate Ayurvedic practices into your Parkinson’s care plan, including expert guidance on diet, herbal remedies, and lifestyle modifications.
TEST BANK For An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, 7th Edition by Bryan Kol...rightmanforbloodline
TEST BANK For An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, 7th Edition by Bryan Kolb, Ian Q. Whishaw, Verified Chapters 1 - 16, Complete Newest Versio
TEST BANK For An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, 7th Edition by Bryan Kolb, Ian Q. Whishaw, Verified Chapters 1 - 16, Complete Newest Version
TEST BANK For An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, 7th Edition by Bryan Kolb, Ian Q. Whishaw, Verified Chapters 1 - 16, Complete Newest Version
TEST BANK For Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 14th Edition by Bertram G. Kat...rightmanforbloodline
TEST BANK For Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 14th Edition by Bertram G. Katzung, Verified Chapters 1 - 66, Complete Newest Version.
TEST BANK For Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 14th Edition by Bertram G. Katzung, Verified Chapters 1 - 66, Complete Newest Version.
TEST BANK For Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 14th Edition by Bertram G. Katzung, Verified Chapters 1 - 66, Complete Newest Version.
TEST BANK For Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 14th Edition by Bertram G. Katzung, Verified Chapters 1 - 66, Complete Newest Version.
Does Over-Masturbation Contribute to Chronic Prostatitis.pptxwalterHu5
In some case, your chronic prostatitis may be related to over-masturbation. Generally, natural medicine Diuretic and Anti-inflammatory Pill can help mee get a cure.
Basavarajeeyam is a Sreshta Sangraha grantha (Compiled book ), written by Neelkanta kotturu Basavaraja Virachita. It contains 25 Prakaranas, First 24 Chapters related to Rogas& 25th to Rasadravyas.
2. Lecture Outline, 11/30/05
• Finish Cancer genetics
– Review Oncogenes and proto-oncogenes
– Tumor Suppressor genes
• Normally inhibit cell growth.
• Allow cell growth when damaged or deleted.
– Mutator genes
– The multi-step model of cancer
• Cloning a cancer gene: BRCA1
5. Oncogenes
• All are involved in positive control of cell growth
and division.
– About 100 different oncogenes have been identified
• Can be various kinds of proteins:
– Growth factors, regulatory genes involved in the
control of cell multiplication.
– Protein kinases, add phosphate groups to target
proteins, important in signal transduction pathways.
• “Proto-oncogenes”
– Normal form of the gene that is involved in positive
regulation of the cell cycle
6. Receptor tyrosine kinases can activate ras
ras is a monomeric G-protein
“molecular switch”
You’ve seen RAS
before . . .
10. Somatic 2nd hit
• Heterozygous carrier cell just before mitosis
• 1. Mutations affecting coding region
• 2. Deletion of chromosomal region including
RB1 gene
Mutant
allele
wildtype
allele
1.
2.
11. p53 Gene
• Detects DNA damage
• The “Last Gatekeeper”
– Involved in 50% of cancers
– Often not malignant despite other cancer-causing
mutations until p53 is inactivated by mutation.
• Two possible responses to DNA damage:
– 1) Acts as a Transcription Factor to activate
expression of p21, which inhibits CDK/G1 cyclin
to halt the cell cycle; then activates DNA repair.
– 2) Triggers Apoptosis (programmed cell death) if
damage can’t be repaied.
16. Mutator genes
• Cancer is caused by mutations, so factors
that increase mutation rate will increase
cancer rate.
– What kinds of genes would increase mutation
rate?
– Example: BRCA1 and BRCA2
• Many environmental factors (carcinogens)
also cause DNA damage or mutations, that
can lead to cancer
17. Colon
1 Loss of
tumor-suppressor
gene APC (or
other)
2 Activation of
Ras oncogene
3 Loss of
tumor-
suppressor
gene DCC
4 Loss of
tumor-suppressor
gene p53
5 Additional
mutations
Colon wall
Normal colon
epithelial cells
Small benign
growth (polyp)
Larger benign
growth (adenoma)
Malignant tumor
(carcinoma)
A multistep model for the
development of colorectal cancer
Figure 19.13
(1) The clonal origin of tumors: each individual
cancer is a clone that arises from a single cell.
The progeny cells have growth advantage over the
surrounding normal cells.
(2) Cancer development is a multi-step process.
Multiple mutations accumulated over periods of
many years ----“multi-hit” model.
21. Case Study: BRCA1
Narod, Steven A. BRCA1 and BRCA2: 1994 and
Beyond. Nature Reviews (2004), 670.
Probably involved in
DNA repair pathways
Would this be a tumor
suppressor or an
oncogene?
22. BRCA1: DNA Repair
Kennedy, Richard D. The Role of BRCA1 in the Cellular
Response to Chemotherapy. Journal of National Cancer Institute
(2004), 1660.
23. Finding the Cancer Gene
BRCA1
• 1980’s: found several families that were
predisposed to breast cancer
• Studied 23 breast cancer families
– Early onset
– Frequent bilateral disease
– Male relatives with breast cancer
• 1990: linked the disease to a marker on
Chromosome 17q21
– D17S74 - 183rd marker used!
– Initial candidate region spanned half the
chromosome (hundreds of possible genes . . .)
27. • Even when a disease gene has not yet been
cloned an abnormal allele can be diagnosed
with reasonable accuracy if a closely linked
RFLP marker has been found
Figure 20.15
RFLP marker
DNA
Restriction
sites
Disease-causing
allele
Normal allele
29. • Two alleles of a gene may produce
restriction fragments with different
lengths.
Figure 20.9
Normal -globin allele
Sickle-cell mutant -globin allele
175 bp 201 bp Large fragment
DdeI DdeI DdeI DdeI
DdeI DdeI DdeI
376 bp Large fragment
DdeI restriction sites in
two alleles of the-
globin gene.
Electrophoresis
shows that the
fragments have
different lengths
Normal
allele
Sickle-cell
allele
Large
fragment
201 bp
175 bp
376 bp
Dde1 cuts at the
sequence
C|TNAG
GANT|C
30.
31. DNA + restriction
enzyme Restriction
fragments I II III
I Normal
-globin
allele
II Sickle-cell
allele
III Heterozygote
Preparation of
restriction
fragments
Gel
electrophoresis
Blotting: transfer to a
nylon membrane
Gel
Sponge
Alkaline
solution
Nitrocellulose
paper (blot)
Heavy
weight
Paper
towels
1 2 3
Figure 20.10
32. Radioactively
labeled probe
for is added
to solution in
a plastic bag
Probe hydrogen-
bonds to fragments
containing the
complementary DNA
sequence
Fragment from
sickle-cell
-globin allele
Fragment from
normal -globin
allele
Paper blot
Film over
paper blot
Hybridization with
radioactive probe.
Autoradiogra
phy.
I II III
I II III
4 5
How would you
make the probe?
36. Mapping BRCA1
• Larger study
• 214 breast cancer families
– Region narrowed to 8 cM
• That is still a 600,000 nucleotide region
• Step 2: Positional cloning
37. Figure 20.3
Restriction site
DNA 5
3 5
3
G A A T T C
C T T A A G
Sticky end
Fragment from different
DNA molecule cut by the
same restriction enzyme
One possible combination
Recombinant DNA molecule
G
G
G
G
G G
A A T T C A A T T C
C T T A A G C T T A A G
Using a restriction enzyme and DNA
ligase to make recombinant DNA
Cut DNA with
Restriction
enzyme, leaving
overhanging ends
1
Base pairing of sticky
ends produces various
combinations.
2
DNA ligase
seals the strands.
3
42. Contig construction
1 Probe a large insert
library to identify a
clone containing the
marker linked to the
trait. sphere.bioc.liv.ac.uk:8080/bio/studyweb/ modules/BIOL315/
43. 2 Probe a large insert
library to identify
clones containing the
sequence of the ends
of the first clone
Contig construction
sphere.bioc.liv.ac.uk:8080/bio/studyweb/ modules/BIOL315/
44. 3 These clones must overlap the
first clone. ie they have some of
the same DNA - and hopefully also
some not in the first clone
Contig construction
sphere.bioc.liv.ac.uk:8080/bio/studyweb/ modules/BIOL315/
45. 4 Again, probe the large insert library
to identify clones containing the
sequence of the ends of these clones.
Contig construction
sphere.bioc.liv.ac.uk:8080/bio/studyweb/ modules/BIOL315/
46. 4 Again, these clones must overlap the
existing clones. ie they have some of the
same DNA - and hopefully also some
new sequence
Contig construction
sphere.bioc.liv.ac.uk:8080/bio/studyweb/ modules/BIOL315/
47. In this way we build up a CONTIG - a
series of overlapping clones centred on
our region of interest.
Contig construction
sphere.bioc.liv.ac.uk:8080/bio/studyweb/ modules/BIOL315/
48. Results of sequencing
– Found 65 expressed genes
– Looked for sequence differences between family
members with and without cancer
49. BRCA1 found in 1994
Science. 1994 Oct 7;266(5182):66-71.
A strong candidate for the breast and ovarian cancer
susceptibility gene BRCA1.
Miki Y, Swensen J, Shattuck-Eidens D, Futreal PA, Harshman K,
Tavtigian S, Liu Q, Cochran C, Bennett LM, Ding W, et al.
Department of Medical Informatics, University of Utah Medical
Center, Salt Lake City 84132.
A strong candidate for the 17q-linked BRCA1 gene, which influences
susceptibility to breast and ovarian cancer, has been identified by
positional cloning methods. Probable predisposing mutations have
been detected in five of eight kindreds presumed to segregate BRCA1
susceptibility alleles.