Beneficiation and Mineral Processing of Magnesium Minerals, Magnesite; Fused Magnesia Production Process, Dolomite; Sea water, Magnesium Extraction By Electrolytic Processes; IG Farben process; Thermal Reduction of magnesium oxide; Pidgeon Process; Magnetherm Process; Mintek Process; Caustic Calcined Magnesia; Dead Burned Magnesia; Fused Magnesia

1. Lecture 4:
Beneficiation and Mineral Processing
of Magnesium Minerals
Hassan Z. Harraz
hharraz2006@yahoo.com
Spring 2017
AN EGYPTIAN MAGNESITE JAR
DYNASTY I-III, CIRCA 2965-2640 B.C.:
Egyptian

2. OUTLİNE OF LECTURE 4:
Examples Mineral processing:
1) Magnesite:
Fused Magnesia Production Process
2) Dolomite
3)Sea water
 Magnesium Extraction By:
a) Electrolytic Processes
 The IG Farben process
b) Thermal Reduction of magnesium oxide:
 Pidgeon Process
 Magnetherm Process
 Mintek Process
 Uses
i) Caustic Calcined Magnesia (MgO)
ii) Dead Burned Magnesia
iii) Fused Magnesia
2

3. INTRODUCTION
 Magnesium is a chemical element with the symbol Mg and atomic
number 12.
 Its common oxidation number is +2.
 It is an alkaline earth metal and the eighth-most-abundant element in
the Earth's crust
 It constitutes ~1.9% of the Earth's crust, and it is the third most
plentiful element dissolved in seawater.
• As the first metallic magnesium was produced by a French chemist A.
Bussy in 1829, the use of the metal on industrial basis has begun late
in the 19th century.
• The magnesium alloys with aluminum, zinc and manganese have
characteristically high strength and light weight.
 Due to magnesium ion's high solubility in water, it is the third-most-
abundant element dissolved in seawater.
 The sea contains trillions of tonnes of magnesium, and this is the source
of much of the 300,000 tonnes now produced annually.
 It has the melting point at 650°C and boiling point at 1107°C
• The world production of metallic magnesium now makes around 300000 tons per
year.
• Half of this amount is produced from dolomite while the second half comes
approximately equal from magnesite, sea water and brines.
• The production of magnesium from dolomite has been developed in France and
United Kingdom, from magnesite in the United States, France and Germany, from
brines in the Russia and USA.
3

4. Occurs usually in the chloride, silicate, hydrated oxide, sulfate or carbonate, in
either a complex or in simple salts.
The main types of magnesium raw material are:
Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2 (13.1%),
Magnesite MgCO3 (28.7%),
Brucite Mg(OH)2
Carnallite MgCI2.KCI.6H2O (8.7%),
Bischofite MgCI2.6H2O (11.9%)
Sea water.
 Magnesite (MgCO3), the naturally occurring carbonate of magnesium (Mg) is one of the key natural
sources for the production of magnesia (MgO) and subsequently fused magnesia.
 Magnesite occurs in two distinct physical forms: macrocrystalline and cryptocrystalline.
Cryptocrystalline magnesite is generally of a higher purity than macrocrystalline ore, but tends to
occur in smaller deposits than the macrocrystalline form.
 Commercially acceptable magnesite should contain at least 95% MgCO3.
 Large mineral deposits of magnesite are located in Austria, Brazil, Canada, China,
Czechoslovakia, Greece, Turkey, North Korea, Yugoslavia, and U.S.
 Magnesite which is applicable for metallic powder production must contain : >43% of MgO, and
<2.5% of CaO and 2% of SiO2.
 Magnesian salts are known in great quantities in salt deposits of the lakes in Kazakhstan, in the
waters of the Aral and Caspian Seas. The deposits of mineral Carnallite of sedimentary origin
are known in the salt occurrences in the Urals, German, France, and Spain.
3.2) Raw Materials
4

5. Grecian Magnesite:
in Yerakini, Northern Greece
5

6. 3.3) PRODUCTION PROCESSES OF MAGNESIA (MgO)
Raw materials and preparation:
For the production of magnesia products (DBM, CCM, FM), the
most important raw materials are:
1) Magnesite (magnesium carbonate) = MgCO3 (dry process)
2) Brucite (magnesium hydroxide) = Mg(OH)2 (dry process)
3) Bischofite (magnesium chloride) = MgCl2•6H2O (wet process)
4) Seawater and dolomite (wet process).
Pathway of coarse
and fine magnesite
for magnesia
production
6

7. General Production of CCM and DBM Flowsheet
3 rotary and 2 shaft kilns
7

8. 3.3) PRODUCTION PROCESSES OF MAGNESIA (MgO)
 Mining: Open pit mine Magnesite ore of stockwork type - Microcrystalline Host rock dunite –
serpentine {snow-white, cryptocrystalline magnesite have been deposited as fracture-filling
material in the ultramafic part of this complex}.
 Pre-beneficiation: Separation of magnesite from host /Waste rock
Processing Methods: Laser sorters or Camera sorters - Magnetic separation - Heavy
media separation
Generally, such ores are amenable to gravimetric methods of separation due to the
difference in the specific gravities of the pure magnesite (Sp.Gr.= 2.70 to 2.80 g/cm3) ) and
the gangue (Sp.Gr. ranging from about 2.55 to about 2.65 g/cm3) and the most commonly
used method of separation is the dense media process.
 Main Beneficiation: Qualitative separation of raw magnesite grades into different qualities →
kiln feed material (3 rotary and 2 shaft kilns)
 Calcination/Sintering: MgCO3 → MgO  + CO2
 Calcination at <1100oC →Caustic Calcined Magnesia (CCM)
 Calcination at 1900oC →Dead Burned Magnesia (DBM)
 Final processing of CCM and DBM:
 Magnesite, from both natural sources (primarily magnesite) and synthetic sources
(seawater, natural brines or deep sea salt beds), is converted into caustic calcined
magnesia by calcining to between 700°C and <1100°C, driving off 96-98 % of the contained
carbon dioxide. CCM is both an end product and an intermediary step in the chain of
magnesia products.
 Further calcining of magnesite at higher temperatures between 1750-2200°C results in the
largely inert product, DBM. Heating to this level drives off all but a small fraction of the
remaining (CO2) to produce a hard crystalline non reactive form of magnesium oxide (MgO)
known as Periclase (50-100 microns). DBM exhibits exceptional dimensional stability and
strength at high temperatures.
8

9. 3.3.1) Magnesia ProductsMagnesia
 Magnesia is chemically pure magnesium oxide (MgO), also known as ‘Periclase’. The melting point of magnesia
is at around 2 800°C. This high melting point is the reason for the preferred use of magnesia as the raw material
for refractory products which are used in high temperature processes for the steel, cement, lime, glass and
non-ferrous metals industries.
 Magnesia can be produced and modified as follows:
1)Caustic Calcined Magnesia (CCM, Causter)
2)Sintered Magnesia /Dead Burned Magnesia (DBM)
3)Fused Magnesia (FM)
 The differences in these types of magnesia products are the physico-chemical characteristics. The different
grades of magnesia produced are defined by chemical purity. Depending on the origin, magnesia generally
contains magnesium oxide (MgO) in a range of 55 –98 %. The most important impurities that occur are SiO2,
Fe2O3, CaO and Al2O3. These impurities affect the quality of the magnesia product. In caustic calcined magnesia,
considerable amounts of CO2 remain in the product.
1) Caustic Calcined Magnesia (CCM) Caustic calcined magnesia (MgO = caustic calcined magnesia: CCM) is partially de-
acidified magnesite or calcinated Mg(OH)2, where the original crystal modification is retained, e.g. the crystal
structure of the original substance is retained during calcination at the decomposition temperature of between 600
and 800°C and the CO2 retention points are free (gaps in the crystal structure system). As a result, CCM has a high
specific surface, which is the reason for the highly reactive behaviour of causter in comparison to DBM or FM. CCM
generally occurs in loose form as powder (fine, porous) or as pieces in very loose chunks. Calcination at
temperatures as high as 1300 °C is used for the production of various grades of CCM.
2) Fused Magnesia (FM) is produced in a three phase Electric Arc Furnace. High grade magnesite or Caustic
Calcined Magnesia (CCM) as raw materials for 12 hours is required for the fusion process at temperatures in
excess of 2750°C. The process promotes the growth of very large crystals of Periclase (>1000 microns)
with a density approaching the theoretical maximum of 3.58 g/cm3.
3) Sintered Magnesia /Dead Burned Magnesia (DBM) is normally manufactured by Calcination /Sintering of raw
magnesite materials in furnaces at temperatures in excess of 1900oC (between 1750-2200°C) , producing a
refractory product whose altered crystalline structure is such that its characteristics and performance are superior
to competing materials.
9

10. Process scheme of the natural pathway for magnesia production
10

11. Fused Magnesia Process Flow Chart
11

12. i) Applications of Caustic Calcined Magnesia (CCM)
Is used in agricultural and industrial applications:
Animal Feed, feed supplement to cattle and Fertilizers.
Industrial Floors and Panels, Abrasives, Ceramics
electrical insulations,
industrial fillers,
Magnesium compounds .
Rubber and plastics .
Heating Elements .
Fuel additives .
Hydrometallurgy of Ni, Co, U
Spinel production .
Fused magnesia Production .
in flue gas desulphurization
Environmental applications: Soil decontamination,
Municipal and Industrial Waste water treatment, Flue
Gas Treatment.
12

13. ii) Dead Burned Magnesia (DBM)
ii) Dead Burned Magnesia
• Purity: 80-98% MgO
• Bulk Density: 3.2 -3.4 g/cm
 Basic Refractories :
 Is used almost exclusively for refractory
applications in the form of basic bricks and
granular refractories.
 DBM has the highest melting point of all
common refractory oxides and is the most
suitable heat containment material for high
temperature processes in the steel industry.
 Basic magnesia bricks are used in furnaces,
ladles and secondary refining vessels and in
cement and glass making kilns.
 Welding Fluxes
 Leather tanning
 Heating Elements (Electrical Powders)
 Dental Applications
 Encapsulation of wastes (phosphate cements)
13

14. iii) Fused Magnesia (FM)
 Fused magnesia is superior to Dead Burned Magnesia (DBM) in strength, abrasion resistance and chemical stability. Major applications are in refractory and electrical
insulating markets. Producers of fused magnesia commonly fall into one of two categories: those producing refractory grades and those producing electrical grades. Few
producers serve both markets on a mainstream basis.
Refractory Grade Fused Magnesia
 The addition of fused magnesia grains can greatly enhance the performance and durability of basic refractories such as magcarbon bricks. This is a function of a higher bulk
specific gravity and large periclase crystal size, plus realignment of accessory silicates. Refractory grade fused magnesia has exacting specifications and is normally
characterised by the following:
 Generally high magnesia content (minimum 96 per cent MgO and up to/exceeding 99 per cent MgO)
 Low silica; lime : silica ratios of 2:1
 Densities of 3.50 g/cm3 or more
 Large periclase crystal sizes (>1000 microns)
 Due to its excellent corrosion resistance, refractory grade fused magnesia is used in high wear areas in steel making, eg, basic oxygen and electric arc furnaces, converters and
ladles.
 Ultra high purity (>99 % MgO) grades have been used in high-tech applications such as optical equipment, nuclear reactors and rocket nozzles.
Electrical Grade Fused Magnesia
 Fused magnesia is also used as an electrical insulating material in heating elements. Although electrical grades of fused magnesia have very tight specifications, they do not
necessarily require the highest MgO contents or densities. Impurities such as sulphur and iron are particularly undesirable, but the product should contain sufficient silica to
enhance its electrical properties. The following are characteristic of electrical grade fused magnesia:
 Low levels of boron, sulphur, iron and trace elements.
 Lime: silica ratios of 1:2 (opposite to refractory requirements).
 Used as electrical insulating material in ceramic sheaths for heating elements.
 Producers manufacture three categories of fused magnesia, each related to the environment of application:
 High Temperature (up to and in excess of 950°C) requiring high purity fused magnesia of 94-97 % MgO and low silica and calcium contents, eg, for stove grills.
 Medium Temperature (up to 800°C) with magnesia contents of 93-96% MgO, eg, for elements in ovens.
 Low Temperature (<600°C) with <90 % MgO, eg, immersion elements.
 Electrical grade cements can be produced by blending electrical grade fused magnesia and plasticisers and hardeners for use in hot plates, toasted sandwich makers and
electric irons. Electrical grade fused magnesia can be given a uniform silicon coating for greater resistance to moisture absorbance during heating element manufacture; this
also improves the cold insulation resistance of low duty elements exposed to conditions of humidity. Electrical grade magnesia is tested for its electrical and thermal
properties, eg, high electrical resistivity and high thermal conductivity.
14

15. Global sources of magnesium oxide and producer countries
Worldwide production of
magnesium oxide
modifications in 2003
15

16. 3.4) PRODUCTION OF MAGNESIUM
Magnesium is principally produced by two methods:
1) Electrolysis of magnesium chloride:
 An electrolytic route in which liquid magnesium is
won from magnesium chloride.
The source of magnesium can be from sea
water, brine, dolomite, magnesite, and
carnallite.
2) Thermal Reduction of magnesium oxide:
The process involves reduction of magnesium ores
by a reactant.
• A list of selected magnesium production routes are given in
Table 1.
16

17. Table 1. Selected Magnesium Production Processes
Process Route
Sources Feed Preparation Reaction
Temperature
/Pressure
Electrolytic
Dow process1 Brine/ Seawater Neutralization, Purification,
Dehydration
Electrolytic
MgCl2(s) → Mg(l) + ½ Cl2(g)
Cathode:
2Cl- → Cl2(g) + 2e
Anode:
Mg2+ + 2e→ Mg(l)
T = 700 – 800oC
P = 1 atm
AM process2 Magnesite Mining, Leaching with HCl,
Dehydration
IG Farben
process1
Sea water/ Brine Neutralization, Prilling,
Dehydration chlorination
Thermal Reduction Process
Silicothermic3 Dolomite, FeSi Calcination; FeSi making;
Pelleting
MgO + CaO + FeSi =
Mg(g) + Ca2SiO4(s) + Fe(s)
T = 1160oC,
P = 13 – 67 Pa
(1.2 x 10-4 atm)
Carbothermic4 Magnesite, Carbon Calcination; Pelleting MgO + C = Mg(g) + CO(g) T = 1700oC
P = 1 atm
Magnetherm5 Dolomite, Bauxite,
FeSi
Calcination; FeSi making; 2 CaO.MgO + (x Fe) Si + n Al2O3 =
2CaO.SiO2. nAl2O3 + 2 Mg + xFe
T = 1550oC
P = 0.05 atm
Aluminothermic6 Dolomite, Al scrap Calcination 4MgO(s) + 2Al(s) = 3Mg(g)
+ MgAl2O4(s)
T = 1700oC
P = 0.85 - 1 atm
Mintek7 Dolomite, Bauxite,
FeSi, Al
Scrap
Calcination 2 CaO.MgO + (x Fe) Si + n Al2O3 =
2CaO.SiO2. nAl2O3 + 2 Mg + xFe
4MgO(s) + 2Al(s) = 3Mg(g) +
MgAl2O4(s)
T = 1700oC
P = 0.85 atm
Reference:
1(Habashi, 1997), 2 (Jenkins et al., 2009), 3(Mayer, 1944),4 (Brooks et al., 2006), 5(Faure and Marchal, 1964), 6(Wadsley, 2000),
and 7 (Schoukens et al., 2006)
17

18. 3.4.1) Electrolytic Processes
Electrolytic processes have dominated production magnesium from the 1970s to
1990s.
In general, these processes include feed preparation, dehydration of magnesium
chloride and electrolysis (Habashi, 1997).
The process involves two stages:
a) Production of pure magnesium chloride from sea water or brine
b) Electrolysis of fused magnesium chloride
• Figure 1 shows various process steps in electrolytic route which are described in
detail by Kipourous and Sadoway (1987).
• The feed preparation stage depends on the raw material. Magnesium oxide can
be extracted from seawater by adding lime to form → Magnesium Hydroxide. →
This is roasted to form caustic magnesium oxide.
MgCl2 (sea water or brine)+ Ca(OH)2  Mg(OH)2 + CaCl2 ΔH = +9.46 kJ
MgSO4 (sea water or brine)+ Ca(OH)2 + 2H2O  Mg(OH)2 + CaSO4· 2H2O ΔH = - 13.3
kJ
 In the hydro magnesium route, dolomite is dissolved in hydrochloric acid forming
a concentrated magnesium chloride solution.
There are two main Anhydrous routes for producing dehydrated magnesium
chloride cell feed. These involve: i) the Chlorination of magnesia (MgO) and ii)
the Dehydration of aqueous magnesium chloride.
18

19. Figure 1. Flowsheet of Electrolytic Routes: Hydrous (Dow Chemical Process) and
Anhydrous (IG Farben, Norsk Hydro, VAMI). (Kipouros and Sadoway, 1987)
Production of Mg via dehydration of Brine water
Coke
Stage Two:
Electrolysis of
fused magnesium
chloride
Stage One:
Production of
pure magnesium
chloride from
sea water or
brine
Dolomite {CaMg(CO3)2}
MgCl2
73% MgCl2
Anhyrous
MgCl2
1
2
i
ii
19

20. (a) The electrolytic process
(i) Production of pure magnesium chloride from sea water or brine
Where sea-water is the raw material, it is treated with dolomite
which has been converted to mixed oxides by heating to a high
temperature. Magnesium hydroxide precipitates, while calcium
hydroxide remains in solution. Magnesium hydroxide is filtered off
and on heating readily forms the pure the oxide.
Conversion to magnesium chloride (MgCl2). is achieved by
heating the oxide, mixed with carbon, in a stream of chlorine at a
high temperature in an electric furnace (Figure 2).
Several reactions occur:
2MgO(s) + C(s) + 2Cl(g) →2MgCl2(s) + CO2(g)
Cl2(g) + C(s) + H2O(g)→ 2HCl(g) + CO(g)
4Mg(OH)2  4MgO + 4H2O
MgO(s) + 2HCl(g) →MgCl2(s) + H2O(g)
Where magnesium chloride-rich brines are the source of
magnesium, the solution is treated for removal of various impurities
and the remaining magnesium chloride solution concentrated by
evaporation in several stages.
The last stage of dehydration has to be carried out in the presence
of hydrogen chloride gas to avoid hydrolysis of the magnesium
chloride:
Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl  MgCl2 (s) + 2H2O(g) Figure 2 Illustrating the production of
magnesium chloride from magnesium
oxide.
20

21. ii) The electrolysis of fused magnesium chloride
The resulting anhydrous magnesium chloride is fed continuously into
electrolytic cells (Figure 3) which are hot enough to melt it.
On electrolysis, magnesium and chlorine are produced:
At the cathode, the Mg2+ ion is reduced by two electrons magnesium metal:
Mg2+ + 2e-  Mg(l) Eo = -2.38 V (1)
At the anode, each pair of Cl- ions is oxidized to chlorine gas, releasing two
electrons to complete the circuit:
2Cl-  Cl2 (g)↑ + 2e- Eo = 1.36 V (2)
Overall: MgCl2(s) → Mg(l) + ½ Cl2(g) , E = 3.74 V (3)
 The molten metal is removed and cast into ingots. The chlorine gas is
recycled to the chlorination furnace.
Figure 3 Illustrating the electrolysis of magnesium chloride.
21

22. (b) Thermal reduction process
Dolomite ore is crushed and heated in a kiln to produce a mixture of magnesium and
calcium oxides, a process known as calcining:
2CaMg(CO3)2 (s) 2CaO(s) + 2MgO(s) + 4CO2 (g)
The next step is reduction of the magnesium oxide. The reducing agent is ferrosilicon (an
alloy of iron and silicon) which is made by heating sand with coke and scrap iron, and
typically contains about 80% silicon.
The oxides are mixed with crushed ferrosilicon, and made into briquettes for loading into
the reactor. Alumina may also be added to reduce the melting point of the slag. The
reaction is carried out at 1500 - 1800 K under very low pressure, close to vacuum. Under
these conditions the magnesium is produced as a vapour which is condensed by cooling to
about 1100 K in steel-lined condensers, and then removed and cast into ingots:
2MgO (s) +Si (s)  SiO2(s) + 2Mg(g)
The forward reaction is endothermic and the position of equilibrium is in favour of
magnesium oxide. However, by removing the magnesium vapour as it is produced, the
reaction goes to completion. The silica combines with calcium oxide to form the molten
slag, calcium silicate:
CaO (s) +SiO2 (s)  SCaiO3(l)
The process gives magnesium with up to 99.99% purity, slightly higher than from the
electrolytic processes.
22

23. i) Pidgeon Process
 The Pidgeon process is a based on silicothermic reduction of
magnesium oxide (Pidgeon, 1944), see Figure 4 for a flow
sheet of the process.
 The calcination of dolomite takes place in rotary-kiln that
operates at temperature ranges of 1000 to 1300oC.
Ferrosilicon is produced by the carbothermic reaction of
quartzite in submerged electric arc furnace at 1600oC.
Calcined dolomite and ferrosilicon are mixed and briquetted
prior to be placed in horizontal
 Ni-Cr stainless steel retort. At temperatures around 1160oC
and operating between 13 to 67 Pa, the reduction of calcined
dolomite by ferrosilicon produces magnesium vapour.
 This reaction can be represented by
2CaO.MgO(s) + (xFe) Si(s) = 2 Mg(s) + 2Ca2SiO4(s) + Fe(s)
 The magnesium vapour condenses in a water cooled
condenser unit outside the furnace. High purity magnesium
can be obtained since the vapour pressure of potential
impurities (Ca, Fe and Si) is low at these conditions.
 The low temperature of the process results in slow kinetics
and poor heat transfer. The heat transfer problems limit the
size of the reactor, and result in relatively low production
rates.
 The typical operation per retort (reactor) is 20 kg magnesium
per 8 hours of operation from a 128 kg charge (Ramakrishnan
and Koltun, 2004).
 The process suffers from excessive heat loss associated with
the reduction process and ferrosilicon making (Cherubini et
al., 2008).
Schematic Flowsheet of the Pidgeon
(Mayer, 1944)
23

24. ii) Mintek Process
Figure 5. The Schematic of Mintek
Process (Abdel-Latif and Freeman,
2008)
The Mintek Process is a large scale batch silicothermic
process operating at atmospheric pressure.
A schematic of the Mintek process furnace is shown in
Figure 5.
The key to this process relies on the utilization of slag and
aluminium, in addition to ferrosilicon, for the reduction of
magnesium oxide at higher temperatures, 1700 to 1750oC.
Thus, the vapour pressure of magnesium is much higher,
at about 0.85 atm.
This process has higher productivity than the Pidgeon
process. However, the higher operating temperatures
result in higher impurity levels due magnesium.
Thermodynamic calculations predict a magnesium purity
of 97.86 wt% for the Mintek process compared to 99.68%
for the Pidgeon process (Wulandari et al., 2009).
This increased impurity level necessitates a subsequent
refining stage, that adds to the process operating and
capital costs.
24

25. 3.5) Uses of Magnesium
Magnesium Sulfate:
• Prepared by the action of sulfuric acid on magnesium carbonate or hydroxite. It is sold on
many forms, e.g., Epsom salts (Hydrate MgSO4.7H2O). The less pure material is used
extensively as sizing and as a fireproofing agent.
Magnesium Chloride:
 The compound resembles calcium chloride and has many of the same uses.
 Application on ceramics, in the sizing of paper and manufacture of
oxychloride cement.
 Main use is in the making of metallic magnesium.
Uses of Magnesium is depending and by anion as follows:
25

26. Magnesium Carbonates:
These vary from dense MgCO3 used in magnesite
bricks and insulation
 Most of these of employed as fillers in inks,
paints and varnishes
Magnesium peroxide
 It is available from the reaction of magnesium sulfate and
barium peroxide.
It is employed as an antiseptic and a bleaching agent.
26

27. Uses of Magnesium
 Extensively in refractories and insulating compounds
 Manufacture of rubber, printing inks, pharmaceutical and toilet goods
 Air pollution control systems (removal of sulfur dioxide from stack gases)
 Magnesium alloys, typically containing over 90% magnesium, have a very low density, comparatively high
strength and excellent machinability. They contain one or more of the elements aluminium, zinc,
manganese or silicon in various amounts, depending on how the alloy is to be processed. Car components
such as steering wheel cores, gearbox casings, dashboard structures and radiator supports are often
made from high pressure die cast magnesium alloys.
 Magnesium alloys are also used as sacrificial anodes. When connected to a less reactive metal, the
magnesium becomes the anode of an electrical cell, and corrodes in preference to the other metal. This is
used to protect the hulls of steel ships and the under-water structure of oil platforms and pipelines from
corrosion.
 Zirconium and rare earth elements are added in some alloys to make the alloy stronger. This group of
alloys is normally sand-cast into parts such as helicopter gearboxes and jet engine auxiliary gearboxes.
 Pure magnesium can be used itself as an alloying additive, for example in the aluminium industry. Indeed,
about half of magnesium produced today is used as an additive to aluminium. An example is in the ring-pull
system of a drinks can; the aluminium at the top of the can has magnesium added to it, making it stronger
but less ductile, enabling the ring to tear open.
 A very important use of magnesium is in the manufacture of titanium.
 Perhaps one of the best known but smallest uses of magnesium is in distress flares, fireworks and other
incendiary devices. They contain very small pieces of magnesium which can be ignited.
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