This document provides an overview of sampling methods used in research. It defines key terms like population, sample, sampling frame and discusses the need for sampling. The ideal requirements of a sample are described as representativeness, measurability, size, coverage and feasibility. Considerations in sampling design include the type of universe, sampling unit, source list and size. The sampling process involves clearly defining the target population, selecting the sampling frame, choosing a sampling technique, determining sample size, collecting data, and assessing the response rate. Both non-probability and probability sampling methods are described.
Study designs, Epidemiological study design, Types of studiesDr Lipilekha Patnaik
Study design, Epidemiological study designA study design is a specific plan or protocol
for conducting the study, which allows the investigator to translate the conceptual hypothesis into an operational one.
Study designs, Epidemiological study design, Types of studiesDr Lipilekha Patnaik
Study design, Epidemiological study designA study design is a specific plan or protocol
for conducting the study, which allows the investigator to translate the conceptual hypothesis into an operational one.
A study design is a specific plan or protocol for conducting the study, which allows the investigator to translate the conceptual hypothesis into an operational one
Medical research involves many epidemiology study scheme
The study design is decided by The nature of the research question.
Descriptive study,analytical study, exploratory study
Clinical trial,cross sectional study,case control study (diseases and non disease group/ ) cohorte study (exposed and non exposed)
A great presentation from a well versed friend in research and EBM, Dr Yaser Faden.
This is a simple introduction to study design with an accompanying workshop to simplify the different types of research study designs.
A study design is a specific plan or protocol for conducting the study, which allows the investigator to translate the conceptual hypothesis into an operational one
Medical research involves many epidemiology study scheme
The study design is decided by The nature of the research question.
Descriptive study,analytical study, exploratory study
Clinical trial,cross sectional study,case control study (diseases and non disease group/ ) cohorte study (exposed and non exposed)
A great presentation from a well versed friend in research and EBM, Dr Yaser Faden.
This is a simple introduction to study design with an accompanying workshop to simplify the different types of research study designs.
The accuracy of a study is heavily influenced by the process of sampling. The article provides an overview of the various sampling techniques used in research. These techniques can be broadly categorised into two types probability sampling techniques and non probability sampling techniques. Probability sampling techniques include simple random sampling, systematic random sampling, and stratified random sampling. On the other hand, non probability sampling techniques include quota sampling, self selection sampling, convenience sampling, snowball sampling, and purposive sampling. Dhaval Makwana | Priti Engineer | Amisha Dabhi | Hardik Chudasama "Sampling Methods in Research: A Review" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-7 | Issue-3 , June 2023, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com.com/papers/ijtsrd57470.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com.com/medicine/ayurvedic/57470/sampling-methods-in-research-a-review/dhaval-makwana
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Acute scrotum is a general term referring to an emergency condition affecting the contents or the wall of the scrotum.
There are a number of conditions that present acutely, predominantly with pain and/or swelling
A careful and detailed history and examination, and in some cases, investigations allow differentiation between these diagnoses. A prompt diagnosis is essential as the patient may require urgent surgical intervention
Testicular torsion refers to twisting of the spermatic cord, causing ischaemia of the testicle.
Testicular torsion results from inadequate fixation of the testis to the tunica vaginalis producing ischemia from reduced arterial inflow and venous outflow obstruction.
The prevalence of testicular torsion in adult patients hospitalized with acute scrotal pain is approximately 25 to 50 percent
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
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Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
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Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
NVBDCP.pptx Nation vector borne disease control programSapna Thakur
NVBDCP was launched in 2003-2004 . Vector-Borne Disease: Disease that results from an infection transmitted to humans and other animals by blood-feeding arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. Examples of vector-borne diseases include Dengue fever, West Nile Virus, Lyme disease, and malaria.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
2. PRESENED BY
AKHIL C A
PG FIRSTYEAR
DEPT. OF PUBLIC HEALTH DENTISTRY
SCB DENTAL COLLEE ,CUTTACK 2
SEMINAR-1
3. INTRODUCTION
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
HISTORY
NEED FOR SAMPLING
IDEAL REQUISITIES OF A SAMPLE
CONSIDERATIONS IN SAMPLING DESIGN
SAMPLING PROCESS
- METHODS OF SAMPLING
- NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING
- PROBABILITY SAMPLING
- OTHER SAMPLING METHODS
ERRORS IN SAMPLING
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
3
4. In order to answer the research questions, it is doubtful that
researcher should be able to collect data from all cases.
Since, researchers neither have time nor the resources to
analyse the entire population, there is the need for a much
simpler way of collecting data.
And there is the relevance of studying a part of the population
rather than the entire population to produce reliable data in a
more practical way.
4
6. SAMPLING
Sampling may be defined as the selection of
some part of an aggregate or totality on the basis
of which a judgement or inference about the
aggregate or totality is made.
In other words, it is the process of obtaining
information about an entire population by
examining only a part of it.
KothariC R. Research methodology: methods and techniques. 2nd ed. New Delhi: NewAge
International (P) Limited, Publishers; 2004, 55-67,152-155.
6
7. SAMPLE
A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully representative)
collection of units from a population used to determine truths
about that population” (Field, 2005)
Source of data in a research
KothariC R. Research methodology: methods and techniques. 2nd ed. New Delhi: NewAge
International (P) Limited, Publishers; 2004, 55-67,152-155.
7
8. Universe/Population
‘Universe’refers to the total of the items or units in any field of
inquiry, whereas the term ‘population’ refers to the total of
items about which information is desired
The attributes that are the object of study are referred to as
characteristics and the units possessing them are called as
elementary units. The aggregate of such units is generally
described as population.
KothariC R. Research methodology: methods and techniques. 2nd ed. New Delhi: NewAge International (P)
Limited, Publishers; 2004, 55-67,152-155.
8
basic considerations
9. Thus, all units in any field of inquiry constitute universe and all
elementary units (on the basis of one characteristic or more)
constitute population
The population or universe can be finite or infinite.
From a practical consideration, we then use the term infinite
population for a population that cannot be enumerated in a
reasonable period of time
KothariC R. Research methodology: methods and techniques. 2nd ed. New Delhi: NewAge International (P)
Limited, Publishers; 2004, 55-67,152-155.
9
basic considerations
10. census and sample survey
A complete enumeration of all items in the ‘population’ is
known as a census inquiry.
practically beyond the reach of ordinary researchers.
mostly it is possible to obtain sufficiently accurate results by
studying only a part of total population, provided the
respondents selected should be as representative of the total
population as possible.
KothariC R. Research methodology: methods and techniques. 2nd ed. New Delhi: NewAge International (P)
Limited, Publishers; 2004, 55-67,152-155.
10
basic considerations
11. The selected respondents constitute the ‘sample’ and the
selection process is called ‘sampling technique.’
The survey so conducted is known as ‘sample survey’.
Sampling frame:
It is a listing of the members of the population from which the
sample is to be drawn.
Collection of sampling units
KothariC R. Research methodology: methods and techniques. 2nd ed. New Delhi: NewAge International (P)
Limited, Publishers; 2004, 55-67,152-155.
11
basic considerations
12. Sampling design:
It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher
would adopt in selecting some sampling units from which
inferences about the population is drawn.
Sampling design is determined before any data are collected
Statisitc(s) and parameter(s):
A statistic is a characteristic of a sample, whereas a parameter is
a characteristic of a population.
Eg; population mean “ µ” is a parameter
sample mean ( X ) is a statistic.
12
basic considerations
KothariC R. Research methodology: methods and techniques. 2nd ed. New Delhi: NewAge International (P) Limited, Publishers; 2004, 55-67,152-155.
13. Sampling error:
Sample surveys study small portion of the population and as
such there would naturally be a certain amount of inaccuracy
in the information collected.This inaccuracy may be termed
as sampling error or error variance.
KothariC R. Research methodology: methods and techniques. 2nd ed. New Delhi: NewAge International (P)
Limited, Publishers; 2004, 55-67,152-155.
13
basic considerations
14. The Dutch word for sample is “steekproef”.The origin of this word
is unclear
Some believe it is a translation of the German word “Stichprobe”.
“Stich” means to dig, stab or cut, and “Probe” means to test or to
try.
Literature “Stichprobe” as a technique used in mining. A kind of
spoon ( test spoon) was used to take a small amount from a
melted substance to determine the amount of metal contained in
it
14
15. To gather data about the population in order to make an
inference that can be generalized to the population
It reduces the cost of the investigation, the time required and
the number of personnel involved
It allows thorough investigation of the units of observation
It helps to provide adequate and in-depth coverage of the
sample units
KothariC R. Research methodology: methods and techniques. 2nd ed. New Delhi: NewAge International (P)
Limited, Publishers; 2004, 55-67,152-155.
15
16. Sampling remains the only way when population contains
infinitely many members.
Sampling remains the only choice when a test involves the
destruction of the item under study.
Sampling usually enables to estimate the sampling errors
and, thus, assists in obtaining information concerning some
characteristic of the population.
KothariC R. Research methodology: methods and techniques. 2nd ed. New Delhi: NewAge International (P)
Limited, Publishers; 2004, 55-67,152-155.
16
need for sampling
17. 1. Efficiency:
It is the ability of the sample to yield the desired
information.
2. Representativeness:
A sample should be representative of the parent
population so that inferences drawn from the sample can be
generalized to that population with , measurable precision and
confidence. Peter S. Research MethodologyAnd Biostatistics. In: Essentials of Public Health Dentistry. 5th ed. New Delhi: Arya
(Medi); 2004. p. 590–594.
17
18. 3. Measurability:
The design of the sample should be such that valid
estimates of its variability can be made, that is, the investigator
should be able to estimate the extent to which findings from the
sample are likely to differ from the parent population.
4. Size:
A sample should be large enough to minimize sample
variability and to allow estimates of the population characteristics to
be made with measurable precision.
18
ideal requisities
Peter S. Research MethodologyAnd Biostatistics. In: Essentials of Public Health Dentistry. 5th ed. New Delhi: Arya (Medi); 2004. p. 590–594.
19. 5. Coverage:
Adequate coverage is essential if the sample has
to remain representative. High rates of refusal / non-response,
loss to follow-up and other missing data can make a sample un
representative of the parent population.
6. Goal orientation:
Sample selection should be oriented towards the
study objectives and research design.
19
ideal requisities
Peter S. Research MethodologyAnd Biostatistics. In: Essentials of Public Health Dentistry. 5th ed. New Delhi: Arya (Medi); 2004. p. 590–594.
20. 7. Feasibility:
The design should be simple enough to be carried
out in practice
8. Economy and cost-efficiency:
The sample design should be such that it should
yield the desired information with appreciable savings in
time and cost and with least sampling error.
20
ideal requisities
Peter S. Research MethodologyAnd Biostatistics. In: Essentials of Public Health Dentistry. 5th ed. New Delhi: Arya (Medi); 2004. p. 590–594.
21. (i)Type of universe:
The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly
define the set of objects, technically called the Universe, to be
studied.
The universe can be finite or infinite.
(ii) Sampling unit:
A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before
selecting sample.
Sampling unit may be a geographical ,may be an individual.
KothariC R. Research methodology: methods and techniques. 2nd ed. New Delhi: NewAge International (P) Limited, Publishers; 2004, 55-67,152-155.
21
22. iii) Source list:
It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to
be drawn.
If source list is not available, researcher has to prepare it.
Such a list should be comprehensive, correct, reliable and
appropriate.
(iv) Size of sample:
This refers to the number of items to be selected from the
universe to constitute a sample.
KothariC R. Research methodology: methods and techniques. 2nd ed. New Delhi: NewAge International (P) Limited, Publishers; 2004, 55-67,152-155.
22
considerations in sampling design
23. The size of sample should neither be excessively large, nor
too small. It should be optimum.
The size of population variance needs to be considered as in
case of larger variance usually a bigger sample is needed.
The parameters of interest in a research study must be kept in
view, while deciding the size of the sample.
Costs too dictate the size of sample that we can draw.
KothariC R. Research methodology: methods and techniques. 2nd ed. New Delhi: NewAge International (P) Limited, Publishers; 2004, 55-67,152-155.
23
considerations in sampling design
24. (v) Parameters of interest:
we may be interested in estimating the proportion of persons
with some characteristic in the population, or we may be
interested in knowing some average or the other measure
concerning the population.
There may also be important sub-groups in the population
about whom we would like to make estimates.
KothariC R. Research methodology: methods and techniques. 2nd ed. New Delhi: NewAge International (P) Limited, Publishers; 2004, 55-67,152-155.
24
considerations in sampling design
25. (vi) Budgetary constraint:
Cost considerations, from practical point influence the size
and type of sample.
This fact can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample.
(vii) Sampling procedure:
Finally, the researcher must decide about the technique to be
used in selecting the items for the sample.
he must select that design which, for a given sample size and
for a given cost, has a smaller sampling error.
KothariC R. Research methodology: methods and techniques. 2nd ed. New Delhi: NewAge International (P) Limited, Publishers; 2004, 55-67,152-155.
25
considerations in sampling design
26. Clearly DefineTheTarget Population
SelectThe Sampling Frame
ChooseThe SamplingTechnique
Hamed taherdoost,Sampling Methods In Reseaarch Methodology;How to choose a sampling technique for research.ijarm; 2016;volume 5: issue 2,p.18-27.
26
DetermineThe Sample Size
Collect Data
AssessThe Response Rate
27. Stage 1: Clearly DefineTarget Population
The first stage in the sampling process is to clearly define target
population.
Population is commonly related to the number of people living in
a particular geographical area or sharing a common experience or
charectiristic.
Stage2: Select Sampling Frame
A sampling frame is a list of the actual cases from which sample
will be drawn.The sampling frame must be representative of the
population.
Hamed taherdoost,Sampling Methods In Reseaarch Methodology;How to choose a sampling technique for research.ijarm; 2016;volume 5: issue 2,p.18-27.
27
Sampling process
28. Stage 3: Choose SamplingTechnique
Taking a subset from chosen sampling frame or entire
population is called sampling. Sampling can be used to make
inference about a population or to make generalization in
relation to existing theory.
In essence, this depends on choice of the researcher.
Different sampling techniques are available depending upon
the type and nature of the population and the objectives of
the investigation.
Hamed taherdoost,Sampling Methods In Reseaarch Methodology;How to choose a sampling technique for research.ijarm; 2016;volume 5: issue 2,p.18-27.
28
Sampling process
29. Stage 4: Determine Sample Size
In order to generalize from a random sample and avoid sampling
errors or biases, a random sample needs to be of adequate size
Factors to be considered
(i) Nature of universe:
Universe may be either homogenous or heterogenous in nature.
If the items of the universe are homogenous, a small sample can
serve the purpose.
But if the items are heterogenous, a large sample would be
required.
Hamed taherdoost,Sampling Methods In Reseaarch Methodology;How to choose a sampling technique for research.ijarm; 2016;volume 5: issue 2,p.18-27.
29
Sampling process
30. (ii) Number of classes proposed:
If many class-groups (groups and sub-groups) are to be formed, a
large sample would be required because a small sample might not
be able to give a reasonable number of items in each class-group.
(iii) Nature of study:
If items are to be intensively and continuously studied, the sample
should be small.
For a general survey the size of the sample should be large, but a
small sample is considered appropriate in technical surveys.
KothariC R. Research methodology: methods and techniques. 2nd ed. New Delhi: NewAge International (P) Limited, Publishers; 2004, 55-67,152-155.
30
Sampling process
31. (iv)Type of sampling:
Sampling technique also determines the size of the sample.
A simple random sample is best for a small population.
(v) Standard of accuracy and acceptable confidence level:
If the standard of accuracy or the level of precision is to be
kept high, we shall require relatively larger sample.
KothariC R. Research methodology: methods and techniques. 2nd ed. New Delhi: NewAge International (P) Limited, Publishers; 2004, 55-67,152-155.
31
Sampling process
32. (vi) Availability of finance:
In practice, size of the sample depends upon the amount of
money available for the study purposes.
(vii) Other considerations:
Nature of units, size of the population, size of questionnaire,
availability of trained investigators, the conditions under which
the sample is being conducted and the time available.
KothariC R. Research methodology: methods and techniques. 2nd ed. New Delhi: NewAge International (P) Limited, Publishers; 2004, 55-67,152-155.
32
Sampling process
33. Stage 5: Collect Data
Once target population, sampling frame, sampling technique
and sample size have been established, the next step is to
collect data.
Stage 6: Assess Response Rate
Response rate is the number of cases agreeing to take part in
the study.These cases are taken from original sample.
In reality, most researchers never achieve a 100 percent
response rate.
Hamed taherdoost,Sampling Methods In Reseaarch Methodology;How to choose a sampling technique for research.ijarm; 2016;volume 5: issue 2,p.18-27.
33
Sampling process
35. Peter S. Research MethodologyAnd Biostatistics. In: Essentials of Public Health Dentistry. 5th ed. New Delhi: Arya (Medi); 2004. p. 590–594.
35
36. Not truly representative and less desirable
Used when researcher is not able to get a random or
stratified sample
When it is not necessary to generalize to a large
population
when it is too expensive to obtain random or stratified
sample
Peter S. Research MethodologyAnd Biostatistics. In: Essentials of Public Health Dentistry. 5th ed. New Delhi: Arya (Medi); 2004. p. 590–594.
36
37. General composition of the sample is decided in
advance
Only requirement is to fill the required number
Done to ensure inclusion of a particular group
Then its no longer a true representative
37
Non-probability Sampling
Peter S. Research MethodologyAnd Biostatistics. In: Essentials of Public Health Dentistry. 5th ed. New Delhi: Arya (Medi); 2004. p. 590–594.
38. Non-representative subset of a larger population
Constructed to serve a very specific need or purpose
Researcher have a Specific group in mind(may not be possible
to specify the population)
Researcher zero in on target group .
Peter S. Research MethodologyAnd Biostatistics. In: Essentials of Public Health Dentistry. 5th ed. New Delhi: Arya (Medi); 2004. p. 590–594.
38
Non-probability Sampling
39. A subset of purposive sample
chain referral/network sampling
One picks up sample along the way ,analogous to a snow ball
accumulating snow
One participant links to ,or recommends another
Useful in hard to track populations
Eg;drug users,sex workers,homeless people …
Peter S. Research MethodologyAnd Biostatistics. In: Essentials of Public Health Dentistry. 5th ed. New Delhi: Arya (Medi); 2004. p. 590–594.
39
Non-probability Sampling
40. Merit
access to difficult to reach populations
(other methods may not yield any results).
Demerit
not representative of the population and will result in a biased
sample as it is self-selecting
Peter S. Research MethodologyAnd Biostatistics. In: Essentials of Public Health Dentistry. 5th ed. New Delhi: Arya (Medi); 2004. p. 590–594.
40
Non-probability Sampling
41. Taking what you can get easily
Accidental sample/ haphazard”sampling
Merit – useful in pilot studies
Demerit – results usually biased and unsatisfactory.
Volunteers would constitute a convenience sample
41
Non-probability Sampling
Peter S. Research MethodologyAnd Biostatistics. In: Essentials of Public Health Dentistry. 5th ed. New Delhi: Arya (Medi); 2004. p. 590–594.
42. Peter S. Research MethodologyAnd Biostatistics. In: Essentials of Public Health Dentistry. 5th ed. New Delhi: Arya (Medi); 2004. p. 590–594.
42
43. Also known as ‘random sampling’ or ‘chance sampling’
Recommended method of sampling
Each unit has a known probability of being selected
Random sampling ensures the law of “Statistical Regularity”
which states that if on an average the sample chosen is a
random one, the sample will have the same composition and
characteristics as the universe.
Generalisations can be made to parent population with
precision and confidence
43
Peter S. Research MethodologyAnd Biostatistics. In: Essentials of Public Health Dentistry. 5th ed. New Delhi: Arya (Medi); 2004. p. 590–594.
44. It gives each element in the population an equal probability of
getting into the sample.
All choices are independent of one another.
4TYPES
A)simple random sampling
B)systematic sampling
C)stratified sampling
D)cluster sampling
Peter S. Research MethodologyAnd Biostatistics. In: Essentials of Public Health Dentistry. 5th ed. New Delhi: Arya (Medi); 2004. p. 590–594.
44
Probability SamplingTechniques
45. It is a technique whereby each sampling unit has the same
probability of being selected(unrestricted random sampling)
Basic procedure:
• Prepare a sampling frame
• Decide on the size of the sample
• Select the required number of units
45
Probability SamplingTechniques
Peter S. Research MethodologyAnd Biostatistics. In: Essentials of Public Health Dentistry. 5th ed. New Delhi: Arya (Medi); 2004. p. 590–594.
46. Chance determines which items shall be included.
All items selected independently.
At each selection , all remaining items have same chance
of being selected.
46
Probability SamplingTechniques
Peter S. Research MethodologyAnd Biostatistics. In: Essentials of Public Health Dentistry. 5th ed. New Delhi: Arya (Medi); 2004. p. 590–594.
47. we can define a simple random sample(size; n) from a finite
population(N) as a sample which is chosen in such a way that
each of the NCn possible samples has the same probability,
1/NCn , of being selected.
six elements (say a, b, c, d, e, f ) i.e., N = 6. Suppose that we
want to take a sample of size n = 3 from it.
c r kothari,research methodology,second edition,2004 47
Probability SamplingTechniques
48. Then there are 6 C3 = 20 possible distinct samples of the
required size
( abc, abd, abe, abf, acd, ace, acf, ade, adf, aef, bcd, bce, bcf,
bde, bdf, bef, cde, cdf, cef, and def).
Each has the probability 1/20 of being chosen.
c r kothari,research methodology,second edition,2004 48
Probability SamplingTechniques
49. Two methods of simple random sampling
Peter S. Research MethodologyAnd Biostatistics. In: Essentials of Public Health Dentistry. 5th ed. New Delhi: Arya (Medi); 2004. p. 590–594.
49
A)Lottery method
B)Table of random numbers
Probability SamplingTechniques
50. Most primitive and mechanical method
Here the population units are numbered on separate slips of
paper of identical size and shape
These slips are then shuffled and blind fold selection of the
number of slips is made to constitute the desired sample size.
This cannot be used for large or infinite population
Peter S. Research MethodologyAnd Biostatistics. In: Essentials of Public Health Dentistry. 5th ed.
New Delhi:Arya (Medi); 2004. p. 590–594.
50
Probability SamplingTechniques
51. Two types
(1)With replacement
In this type of sampling an observation has a chance to
be selected at each draw.
Probability each item: 1/N
(2)Without replacement
In this type of sampling an observation is included in the
sample only once and is selected randomly without any preference.
Probability 1st draw: 1/N Probability 2nd draw: 1/N-1
51
Probability SamplingTechniques
52. This table consists of a series of digits that are generated
randomly.
The numbers are arranged in rows and columns and can be read
in any direction. All the digits are equally probable.
Number each member of the population 1 to N.
Determine the population size and sample size.
Select a starting point on the random number table.
Peter S. Research MethodologyAnd Biostatistics. In: Essentials of Public Health Dentistry. 5th ed. New Delhi: Arya (Medi); 2004. p. 590–594.
52
Probability SamplingTechniques
53. Choose a direction in which to read (up to down, left to right,
or right to left).
Continue this way through the table until you have selected
your entire sample, whatever your n is.
The numbers selected then correspond to the numbers
assigned to the members of population, and those selected
become sample.
Peter S. Research MethodologyAnd Biostatistics. In: Essentials of Public Health Dentistry. 5th ed. New Delhi: Arya (Medi); 2004. p. 590–594.
53
Probability SamplingTechniques
54. Various statisticians likeTippett,Yates, Fisher have prepared
tables of random numbers which can be used for selecting a
random sample.
Generally,Tippett’s random number tables are used for the
purpose.
Tippett gave10400 four figure numbers.
He selected 41600 digits from the census reports and
combined them into fours to give his random numbers which
may be used to obtain a random sample.
c r kothari,research methodology,second edition,2004 54
55. first thirty sets ofTippett’s numbers
2952 6641 3992 9792 7979 5911
3170 5624 4167 9525 1545 1396
7203 5356 1300 2693 2370 7483
3408 2769 3563 6107 6913 7691
0560 5246 1112 9025 6008 8126
Suppose we are interested in taking a sample of 10 units from a
population of 5000 units, bearing numbers from 3001 to 8000.
from left to right, starting from the first row itself, we obtain the
following numbers:
6641, 3992, 7979,5911, 3170, 5624, 4167, 7203, 5356, and 7483.
c r kothari,research methodology,second edition,2004 55
56. Merits
Ease of task in smaller populations
No personal bias.
Sample more representative of population.
Accuracy can be assessed as sampling errors
follow principals of chance.
Demerits
Requires completely catalogued universe.
Cases too widely dispersed - more time and
cost.
Peter S. Research MethodologyAnd Biostatistics. In: Essentials of Public Health Dentistry. 5th ed. New Delhi: Arya (Medi); 2004. p. 590–594.
56
Probability SamplingTechniques
57. A systematic sample is obtained by selecting one unit at random and then
selecting
additional units at evenly spaced interval till the sample of required size has
been got.
applied to field studies when the population is large, scattered and not
homogeneous.
Systematic procedure is followed to choose a sample by taking every Kth
house or patient where K refers to the sample interval,
K=sampling interval/fraction
57
Probability SamplingTechniques
Peter S. Research MethodologyAnd Biostatistics. In: Essentials of Public Health Dentistry. 5th ed. New Delhi: Arya (Medi); 2004. p. 590–594.
58. Steps to form/select the sample using systematic sampling:
First develop a well-defined structural population to
start.
Figure out the ideal size of sample
After deciding the sample size, assign number to every
member of sample
Then, the interval of the sample is decided.
And successive sampling units are added in accordance
with sampling interval.
Peter S. Research MethodologyAnd Biostatistics. In: Essentials of Public Health Dentistry. 5th ed. New Delhi: Arya (Medi); 2004. p. 590–594.
58
Probability SamplingTechniques
59. For example, we want to select a total of ten patients from a
group of forty, then the Kth element will be selected by;
40/10 = 4
so every 4th patient will be taken for sampling – 4, 8, 12, 16,
20, 24, 28, 32, 36, and 40.
Peter S. Research MethodologyAnd Biostatistics. In: Essentials of Public Health Dentistry. 5th ed. New Delhi: Arya (Medi); 2004. p. 590–594.
59
K=N/n
Probability SamplingTechniques
60. Types of systematic sampling
Linear systematic sampling
A list is made in a sequential manner of the whole population
list.
Decide the sample size and find the sampling interval
Now, choose random number between 1 and K and then to
the number what we got add K to that to get the next sample.
Types of Sampling in Research
Pooja Bhardwaj, ReviewArticle 60
• Linear
• Circular
61. Circular systematic sampling
In this, first, we will determine sample interval and then select
number nearest to N/n.
For example, if N = 17 and n = 4, then k is taken as 4 not 5 and
then start selecting randomly between 1 to N
Skip K units each time when we select the next unit until we
get n units. In this type, there will be N number of samples
unlike K samples in linear systematic sampling method.
Types of Sampling in Research
Pooja Bhardwaj, ReviewArticle 61
62. MERITS
The systematic design is simple, convenient to adopt.
The time and labor involved in the collection of sample is
relatively small.
If the population is sufficiently large, homogeneous and each
unit is numbered, this method can yield accurate results
DEMERITS
Sample may be biased if hidden periodicity in population
coincides with that of selection.
Soben peter,essentials of public health dentistry,5th edition
62
Probability SamplingTechniques
63. Followed when the population is not homogeneous.
The population under study is first divided into homogeneous
groups or classes called strata and the sample is drawn from
each stratum at random in proportion to its size.
For giving representation to all strata of society or population
such as selecting sample from defined areas, classes, ages,
sexes, etc.
More of a representative sample than a random sample
Hamed taherdoost,Sampling Methods In Reseaarch Methodology;How to choose a sampling technique for
research.ijarm; 2016;volume 5: issue 2,p.18-27.
63
Probability SamplingTechniques
64. Hamed taherdoost,Sampling Methods In Reseaarch Methodology;How to choose a sampling technique for
research.ijarm; 2016;volume 5: issue 2,p.18-27.
64
First, we will define target population.
Recognize the stratification variables which should match with the
research objective
Figure out the number of strata to be used
The whole population is then divided in to different strata
Probability SamplingTechniques
65. Hamed taherdoost,Sampling Methods In Reseaarch Methodology;How to choose a sampling technique for
research.ijarm; 2016;volume 5: issue 2,p.18-27.
65
Assign random, unique number to each element
Then divide the number of samples to be taken with the total
number of population into number of people in that group.
The number now what we got is the number of samples to be
selected for that particular strata.
Here, we will use the simple random technique.
Probability SamplingTechniques
66. Merits
1. Proportionate representative sample from each strata is
secured
2. It gives greater accuracy
Demerits
1. Utmost care in dividing strata.
2. Skilled sampling supervisors.
66
Probability SamplingTechniques
Hamed taherdoost,Sampling Methods In Reseaarch Methodology;How to choose a sampling technique for research.ijarm; 2016;volume 5: issue 2,p.18-27.
67. A cluster is a randomly selected group.
used when units of population are natural groups or clusters
such as villages,wards, blocks, slums of a town, factories,
work-shops or children of a school, etc.
Peter S. Research MethodologyAnd Biostatistics. In: Essentials of Public Health Dentistry. 5th ed. New Delhi: Arya
(Medi); 2004. p. 590–594.
67
Probability SamplingTechniques
68. Used to evaluate vaccination coverage in expanded
Programme of Immunization (EPI) and Universal
Immunization Programme(UIP)
For example,suppose we want to measure the proportion of
defective machine parts in an inventory ,at apoint of time
stored in 400 cases 50 each.
Now we consider 400 cases as clusters and randomly select ‘n’
cases in first stage and in second stage examine all the the
machine parts in each randomly selected case.
KothariC R. Research methodology: methods and techniques. 2nd ed. New Delhi: NewAge International (P) Limited, Publishers; 2004, 55-67,152-155 68
Probability SamplingTechniques
69. ADVANTAGES:
▪ Very useful when populations are large and spread over a
large geographic region
▪ Convenient and more time and cost effective.
DISADVANTAGES:
▪ Representation is likely to become an issue
▪ Standard error is higher
Peter S. Research MethodologyAnd Biostatistics. In: Essentials of Public Health Dentistry. 5th ed. New Delhi: Arya
(Medi); 2004. p. 590–594.
69
Probability SamplingTechniques
71. Part of the information collected from whole sample & part
from subsample.
In a tuberculosis survey,
First phase - Mantoux test may be done in all cases of
the sample
Second phase - X-ray of the chest may be done in Mantoux
positive cases
Third phase -sputum examined in X-ray positive cases
Survey by such procedure is less costly, less laborious and more
purposeful.
71
other SamplingTechniques
Peter S. Research MethodologyAnd Biostatistics. In: Essentials of Public Health Dentistry. 5th ed. New Delhi: Arya (Medi); 2004. p. 590–594.
72. The first stage is to select the groups or clusters.
Then subsamples are taken in as many subsequent stages as
necessary to obtain the desired sample size.
Employed in large country surveys.
First stage, random number of districts chosen in all states.
In Second stage followed by random number of talukas,
villages.
Then third stage units will be houses.
All ultimate units (houses, for instance) selected at last step
are surveyed.
Peter S. Research Methodology And Biostatistics. In: Essentials of Public Health Dentistry. 5th ed. New Delhi: Arya (Medi); 2004. p. 590–594.
72
other SamplingTechniques
73. Multistage sampling used frequently when a complete list of
all members of the population does not exist and is
inappropriate.
This technique, is essentially the process of taking random
samples of preceding random samples.
By avoiding the use of all sample units in all selected clusters,
multistage sampling avoids the unnecessary, costs associated
with traditional cluster sampling.
Peter S. Research Methodology And Biostatistics. In: Essentials of Public Health Dentistry. 5th ed. New Delhi: Arya (Medi); 2004. p. 590–594.
73
other SamplingTechniques
74. Matched Random Sampling:
Also called matched pairs,paired samples,or dependant
samples.
A method of assigning participants to groups in which pairs of
participants are first matched on some characteristic and then
individually assigned randomly to groups.
[internet].2020[cited 3rd october]Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325846982_ Sample _And_Sampling_Designs.
74
other SamplingTechniques
75. Matched samples are paired up so that participants share
every characteristics ,except for the one under investigation.
[internet].2020[cited 3rd october]Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325846982_ Sample _And_Sampling_Designs.
75
other SamplingTechniques
76. Mechanical Sampling:
Mechanical sampling is typically used in sampling solids,
liquids and gases, using devices such as grabs, scoops; thief
probes etc. Care is needed in ensuring that the sample is
representative of the frame.
[internet].2020[cited 3rd october]Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325846982_ Sample _And_Sampling_Designs. 76
other SamplingTechniques
77. Line-intercept Sampling:
Line-intercept sampling is a method of sampling elements in a
region whereby an element is sampled if a chosen line
segment, called a ‘transect’, intersects the element.
[internet].2020[cited 3rd october]Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325846982_ Sample _And_Sampling_Designs.
77
other SamplingTechniques
78. Panel Sampling:
Method of first selecting a group of participants through a
random sampling method and then asking that group for the
same information again several times over a period of time.
Therefore, each participant is given the same survey or
interview at two or more time points; each period of data
collection is called a ‘wave’.
chosen for large scale or nation-wide studies in order to study
changes in the population with regard to problems like
chronic illness , job stress, weekly food expenditures.
[internet].2020[cited 3rd october]Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325846982_ Sample _And_Sampling_Designs.
78
other SamplingTechniques
79. Voluntary Sample:
A voluntary sample is made up of people who self-select into
the survey.
Often,these folks have a strong interest in the main topic of
the survey.
Suppose, for example, that a news show asks viewers to
participate in an online poll.This would be a volunteer sample.
The sample is chosen by the viewers, not by the survey
administrator.
[internet].2020[cited 3rd october]Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325846982_ Sample _And_Sampling_Designs.
79
other SamplingTechniques
80. River sampling
Invites respondents to take a survey via online
banners,promotions,offers, and invitations placed on a variety
of websites.
And after some screening questions they are routed to a
survey based on their answers.
The surveyers have no idea that who will respond.
They have no demographic information of the participants
and can’t contact them after survey completion.
[internet].2020[cited 3rd october]Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325846982_ Sample _And_Sampling_Designs.
80
other SamplingTechniques
81. Kothari C R. Research methodology: methods and techniques. 2nd ed. New Delhi: New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers; 2004, 55-67,152-155.
81
82. Two costs are involved in a sampling analysis viz. the cost of
collecting the data and the cost of an incorrect inference
resulting from the data
There are two types of errors that arise in sampling,
Kothari C R. Research methodology: methods and techniques. 2nd ed. New Delhi: New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers; 2004, 55-67,152-155.
82
-Sampling error
-Systematic bias
Errors In Sampling
83. systematic bias
Results from errors in the sampling procedures, and it cannot be
reduced or eliminated by increasing the sample size.it results from;
1.Inappropriate sampling frame:
If the sampling frame is inappropriate i.e., a biased representation of
the universe, it will result in a systematic bias.
2. Defective measuring device:
If the measuring device is constantly in error, it will result in
systematic bias or In survey if the questionnaire or the interviewer is
biased.
Kothari C R. Research methodology: methods and techniques. 2nd ed. New Delhi: New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers; 2004, 55-67,152-155.
83
Errors In Sampling
84. 3. Non-respondents(coverage error)
If we are unable to sample all the individuals initially included in the
sample, there may arise a systematic bias.
4. Indeterminancy principle:
Sometimes we find that individuals act differently when kept under
observation than what they do when kept in non-observed
situations.
5. Natural bias in the reporting of data:
Natural bias of respondents in the reporting of data is often the
cause of a systematic bias in many inquiries.
Kothari C R. Research methodology: methods and techniques. 2nd ed. New Delhi: New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers; 2004, 55-67,152-155.
84
Errors In Sampling
85. Sampling errors
Are the random variations in the sample estimates around the
true population parameters.
Since they occur randomly and are equally likely to be in
either direction, their nature happens to be of compensatory
type and the expected value happens to be equal to zero.
Sampling error decreases with the increase in the size of the
sample, and it happens to be of a smaller magnitude in case of
homogeneous population
Kothari C R. Research methodology: methods and techniques. 2nd ed. New Delhi: New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers; 2004, 55-67,152-155.
85
Errors In Sampling
86. Sampling error can be measured for a given sample design
and size.
The measurement of sampling error is usually called the
‘precision of the sampling plan’
If we increase the sample size, the precision can be improved.
But increasing the size of the sample increases the cost of
collecting data and also enhances the systematic bias.
In brief, researcher must ensure that the procedure balances
both.
Kothari C R. Research methodology: methods and techniques. 2nd ed. New Delhi: New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers; 2004, 55-67,152-155.
86
Errors In Sampling
87. Sampling is the process by which elements are selected
from population for a research study.
There are mainly two types of sampling; probability and
non-probability sampling
Probabilty sampling is the ideal method of sampling,but
is not practical always and in such situation resaercher
has to go for non-probability sampling
Appropriate sample size depends on various factors such
as population characteristics,statistical issues,economic
constraints,availabilty of resources time etc..
87
88. Kothari C R. Research methodology: methods and techniques.
2nd ed. New Delhi: New Age International (P) Limited,
Publishers; 2004.p. 55-67,152-155.
Peter S. Research Methodology And Biostatistics. In:
Essentials of Public Health Dentistry. 5th ed. New Delhi:Arya
(Medi); 2013. p. 590–594.
DanielWW, Cross CL. In: Biostatistics: basic concepts and
methodology for the Health Sciences. 10th ed . New Delhi :
Wiley; 2014. p. 7–13.
88
89. Mahajan BK.Methods in Biostatistics For Medical Students
And ResearchWorkers. 6th ed. New Delhi :Jay pee
Publishers;1997.p.88-102.
WHO Health Research Methodology,A Guide ForTraining In
Research Methods.2nd ed.Manila; 2001.p.71-82
Park K. Park's textbook of Preventive and social medicine.
25th ed. India: Bhanot Publishers; 2017. p. 112–23.
Bhardwaj P.Types of sampling in research. J Pract Cardiovasc
Sci 2019;volume5: issue3.p.157-63.
89
90. Syed Mohammed Sajjad Kabir. SampleAnd Sampling Designs
[internet].2020[updated 2016 July;cited 2020 october
3]Available
from:https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325846982_
Sample _And_Sampling_Designs.
c r kothari,research methodology,second edition,2004 90
OFFICE OF THE REISTRAR ENERAL ,16TH ON 2021 FROM 1872
More than two million people responded to the study with their names obtained through magazine subscription lists and telephone directories. It was not appreciated that these lists were heavily biased towards Republicans and the resulting sample, though very large, was deeply flawed.[21][22,LANDON AND ROOSWELT, In the 19th century it was also used in other branches
of industry, like manufacturing paper.,in nthrlands cheese industry,steken=to cut and proeven =to taste
Clearly defining sample, employing the right sampling technique and generating a large sample, in some respects can help to reduce the likelihood of sample bias.
Extreme Case Sampling: It focuses on cases that are rich in information because they are unusual or
special in some way. e.g. the only community in a region that prohibits felling of trees.
Maximum Variation Sampling: Aims at capturing the central themes that cut across participant
variations. e.g. persons of different age, gender, religion and marital status in an area protesting
against child marriage.
Homogeneous Sampling: Picks up a small sample with similar characteristics to describe some
particular sub-group in depth. e.g. firewood cutters or snake charmers or bonded laborers.
Typical Case Sampling: Uses one or more typical cases (individuals, families / households) to provide
a local profile. The typical cases are carefully selected with the co-operation of the local people/
extension workers.
Critical Case Sampling: Looks for critical cases that can make a point quite dramatically. e.g. farmers
who have set up an unusually high yield record of a crop.
Chain Sampling: Begins by asking people, ‘who knows a lot about ________’. By asking a number of
people, you can identify specific kinds of cases e.g. critical, typical, extreme etc.
Criterion Sampling: Reviews and studies cases that meet some pre-set criterion of importance e.g.
farming households where women take the decisions.
In short, purposive sampling is best used with small numbers of individuals/groups which may well be
sufficient for understanding human perceptions, problems, needs, behaviors and contexts, which are
the main justification for a qualitative audience research
A group of similar things or people positioned or occuring closely together.
One sample and subsets ,randomisation at initial stage only.bt data collection at every stage.
Randomisation in every stages.suppose we want to study prevalence of flourosis.6-10yr age,school is setting,we take all districts-randomisation-blocks-randomisation –schools-3 schools -1500 students-study.data collection is at the last stage only.
can also be used to inform researchers about within-person health changes due to age other factor.