The document discusses various study designs used in epidemiology. Descriptive studies involve systematically collecting and presenting data to describe a situation, such as case reports and case series. Analytical studies attempt to establish causes or risk factors by comparing groups with and without an outcome. Observational analytical studies include cross-sectional, case-control and cohort studies. Experimental studies randomly assign individuals to intervention and control groups to test interventions. Measures of association used include relative risk, odds ratio and attributable risk, which quantify the strength of relationships between exposures and outcomes.
This document discusses different study designs used in research. It defines a study design as a specific plan for conducting a study that allows the investigator to translate a conceptual hypothesis into an operational one. The document outlines different types of study designs including descriptive studies, analytical observational studies like cross-sectional studies, case-control studies, and cohort studies, as well as experimental/interventional studies. For each study design, it provides details on the unit of study, study question, direction of inquiry, and key aspects of the design.
This document discusses various study designs used in medical research. It describes descriptive study designs like case reports, case series, ecological studies, and cross-sectional studies which are used to describe characteristics of subjects. It also describes analytical study designs like case-control studies and cohort studies which are used to analyze associations between exposures and outcomes. Experimental study designs like randomized controlled trials are also discussed which are used to evaluate interventions. Key aspects of each study design like their strengths, weaknesses and steps are highlighted.
This document discusses the history and importance of clinical research. It notes that while medical research has only recently emerged as a formal discipline, epidemiological practices date back centuries to figures like Hippocrates, James Lind, Edward Jenner, John Snow, Ignaz Semmelweis, and Joseph Goldberger. Their studies helped establish strong methodologies in the 1940s-1950s. The document outlines reasons for conducting research, including fulfilling degree requirements, advancing medical knowledge as the field continues expanding, and contributing to the art and science of medicine. It argues doctors should be trained in research to apply findings wisely, produce research that helps colleagues, and consume research accurately to treat patients. Finally, it describes seven key reasons related to
The document discusses different study designs used in research, including observational studies like case reports, case series, cross-sectional studies, and cohort studies, as well as experimental studies like randomized controlled trials. It describes the key characteristics and advantages and disadvantages of each design. The highest level of evidence comes from randomized controlled trials, while observational studies are useful for initial hypothesis generation.
This document summarizes a seminar presentation on case control studies. It begins by defining epidemiological study cycles and analytical study types such as case control and cohort studies. It then focuses on case control studies, defining them, discussing their history, design, outcomes, limitations, advantages and applications. Examples of notable case control studies are provided, such as Lane Claypon's 1926 breast cancer study and studies from the 1950s linking smoking to lung cancer. Key aspects of case control study methodology like selection of cases and controls, and matching to control for confounding variables are explained.
Observational descriptive study: case report, case series & ecological studyPrabesh Ghimire
This document discusses different types of research designs, including observational and intervention designs. It focuses on non-intervention designs like case reports, case series, and cross-sectional studies. Case reports describe the occurrence, diagnosis, treatment and follow-up of an individual patient, especially unusual cases. Case series describe aspects of a disease or treatment by following a group of patients with common characteristics. Both case reports and case series are useful for generating hypotheses but have limitations due to lack of a control group.
This document defines and classifies different types of medical research. It begins by defining research as a systematic and organized method for finding answers to questions. Medical research is then classified into primary research, which involves collecting new data, and secondary research, which involves collecting existing data from other researchers. Observational research is further divided into descriptive studies, which observe characteristics without intervention, and analytical studies, which attempt to establish causes or risk factors. Specific types of descriptive and analytical studies discussed include case reports, case series, cross-sectional studies, and case-control studies. Key aspects and examples of each type of study are provided.
This document discusses different study designs used in research. It defines a study design as a specific plan for conducting a study that allows the investigator to translate a conceptual hypothesis into an operational one. The document outlines different types of study designs including descriptive studies, analytical observational studies like cross-sectional studies, case-control studies, and cohort studies, as well as experimental/interventional studies. For each study design, it provides details on the unit of study, study question, direction of inquiry, and key aspects of the design.
This document discusses various study designs used in medical research. It describes descriptive study designs like case reports, case series, ecological studies, and cross-sectional studies which are used to describe characteristics of subjects. It also describes analytical study designs like case-control studies and cohort studies which are used to analyze associations between exposures and outcomes. Experimental study designs like randomized controlled trials are also discussed which are used to evaluate interventions. Key aspects of each study design like their strengths, weaknesses and steps are highlighted.
This document discusses the history and importance of clinical research. It notes that while medical research has only recently emerged as a formal discipline, epidemiological practices date back centuries to figures like Hippocrates, James Lind, Edward Jenner, John Snow, Ignaz Semmelweis, and Joseph Goldberger. Their studies helped establish strong methodologies in the 1940s-1950s. The document outlines reasons for conducting research, including fulfilling degree requirements, advancing medical knowledge as the field continues expanding, and contributing to the art and science of medicine. It argues doctors should be trained in research to apply findings wisely, produce research that helps colleagues, and consume research accurately to treat patients. Finally, it describes seven key reasons related to
The document discusses different study designs used in research, including observational studies like case reports, case series, cross-sectional studies, and cohort studies, as well as experimental studies like randomized controlled trials. It describes the key characteristics and advantages and disadvantages of each design. The highest level of evidence comes from randomized controlled trials, while observational studies are useful for initial hypothesis generation.
This document summarizes a seminar presentation on case control studies. It begins by defining epidemiological study cycles and analytical study types such as case control and cohort studies. It then focuses on case control studies, defining them, discussing their history, design, outcomes, limitations, advantages and applications. Examples of notable case control studies are provided, such as Lane Claypon's 1926 breast cancer study and studies from the 1950s linking smoking to lung cancer. Key aspects of case control study methodology like selection of cases and controls, and matching to control for confounding variables are explained.
Observational descriptive study: case report, case series & ecological studyPrabesh Ghimire
This document discusses different types of research designs, including observational and intervention designs. It focuses on non-intervention designs like case reports, case series, and cross-sectional studies. Case reports describe the occurrence, diagnosis, treatment and follow-up of an individual patient, especially unusual cases. Case series describe aspects of a disease or treatment by following a group of patients with common characteristics. Both case reports and case series are useful for generating hypotheses but have limitations due to lack of a control group.
This document defines and classifies different types of medical research. It begins by defining research as a systematic and organized method for finding answers to questions. Medical research is then classified into primary research, which involves collecting new data, and secondary research, which involves collecting existing data from other researchers. Observational research is further divided into descriptive studies, which observe characteristics without intervention, and analytical studies, which attempt to establish causes or risk factors. Specific types of descriptive and analytical studies discussed include case reports, case series, cross-sectional studies, and case-control studies. Key aspects and examples of each type of study are provided.
演講-Meta analysis in medical research-張偉豪Beckett Hsieh
This document provides an overview of meta-analysis. It defines meta-analysis as a quantitative approach to systematically combining results from previous studies to arrive at conclusions about the body of research. It discusses key aspects of planning and conducting a meta-analysis such as defining the research question, searching for relevant literature, determining study eligibility, extracting data, analyzing effect sizes, assessing heterogeneity, and addressing publication bias. Software for performing meta-analyses and specific effect sizes like risk ratio and odds ratio are also mentioned.
This document discusses different types of research studies, including observational studies like case-control studies, cohort studies, and cross-sectional studies as well as experimental studies like clinical trials. It provides details on the design, strengths, and limitations of each type of study. Case-control studies look back in time to compare exposures between cases and controls, while cohort studies follow groups over time to examine exposure-outcome relationships. Cross-sectional studies measure exposure and outcome at the same time point. Clinical trials experimentally assign interventions to evaluate effects on outcomes. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses statistically synthesize evidence from multiple studies.
This document discusses cross-sectional studies, which measure exposure and health outcomes at the same point in time. It notes that cross-sectional studies can be descriptive, providing prevalence rates, or analytic, examining associations between exposures and outcomes. While able to generate hypotheses, cross-sectional studies cannot determine causation due to their inability to assess temporal relationships. The document also briefly touches on case reports and case series, which lack control groups for formally assessing relationships.
This document discusses and compares various study designs used in medical research, including observational studies like case reports, case series, case-control studies, and cohort studies as well as experimental studies like randomized controlled trials. It provides descriptions of each study design along with their pros and cons. For example, it notes that case reports are useful for raising hypotheses but very rare to use to make statements of causation, while randomized controlled trials allow for control of therapy but have ethical and cost issues.
This document discusses cross-sectional studies. It defines a cross-sectional study as an observational study that measures exposure and health outcomes in a population at a single point in time, providing a "snapshot" of prevalence. It describes key characteristics, including simultaneously collecting exposure and outcome data, estimating prevalence rather than incidence, and inability to determine temporal relationships between variables. The document outlines advantages as being quick and inexpensive but also limitations such as inability to establish causation.
Meta-analysis in Epidemiology is:
Useful tool for epidemiological studies which investigates the relationships between certain risk factors and disease.
Useful tool to improve animal well-being and productivity
Despite of a wealth of suitable studies it is relatively underutilized in animal and veterinary science.
Meta-analysis can provide reliable results about diseases occurrence, pattern and impact in livestock.
It is utmost essential to take benefit of this statistical tool for produce. more reliable estimates of concern effects in animal and veterinary science data.
This document discusses various types of epidemiological study designs. It describes observational studies like case studies, case series, cross-sectional studies and ecological studies which are descriptive in nature. Analytical observational studies include case-control and cohort studies. Experimental studies involve intervention and comparison groups like randomized controlled trials. The stages of epidemiological investigations are also outlined, from the diagnostic and descriptive phases to the analytical, intervention, decision-making and monitoring phases. Common epidemiological terms like relative risk, odds ratio and attributable risk are defined.
The document provides information on various study designs used in epidemiology, including descriptive and analytical studies. Descriptive studies like case reports and case series are used to identify frequencies, distributions and generate hypotheses. Analytical observational studies include cross-sectional, cohort and case-control studies used to test hypotheses. Cohort studies specifically follow groups over time to study exposure-disease relationships. They involve selecting exposed and non-exposed groups, defining and measuring exposures, following up to assess outcomes, and analyzing results including relative risk calculations.
The document provides an overview of basic statistics and research methodology, focusing on study designs. It discusses observational studies like cross-sectional, case-control and cohort studies as well as experimental studies like clinical trials. For each study design, it describes the key elements including temporal sequence, intervention, sampling methods, and how they differ from one another. It emphasizes the importance of selecting the appropriate study design based on the research question and highlights factors to consider like ability to determine causation, study of rare diseases, costs and time involved.
1) Blinding in clinical trials refers to keeping trial participants, investigators, and assessors unaware of treatment assignments to prevent bias.
2) Potential benefits of blinding include less psychological or physical bias in participants, better compliance, and less bias in outcome assessments.
3) Types of blinding include non-blinded (where all know assignments), single-blinded (one group remains unaware), and double-blinded (participants, investigators, and assessors remain unaware). Placebos are often used to maintain blinding.
Observational Research designs: detailed description Tarek Tawfik Amin
This document provides an overview of observational research designs presented by Professor Tarek Tawfik Amin. It outlines the objectives, methodology, contents and plan of the workshop on observational research designs. Descriptive designs such as case reports, case series, and cross-sectional studies are discussed. Case reports describe individual cases while case series report aggregates of individual cases. Cross-sectional studies observe a population at a single point in time to describe disease prevalence and other characteristics. Analytical observational designs like case-control and cohort studies are also introduced.
Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are considered the gold standard for evaluating medical interventions. RCTs involve randomly assigning participants into experimental and control groups to receive or not receive a treatment. This helps reduce bias. The first RCT was conducted in 1747 by James Lind to test treatments for scurvy. RCTs follow strict protocols, use randomization, have follow-ups, and assess outcomes with the aim of producing evidence-based results. They can evaluate all types of medical questions and help establish causal relationships, but require significant time and costs.
An epidemiological experiment in which subjects in a population are randomly allocated into groups, usually called study and control groups to receive and not receive an experimental preventive or therapetuic procedure, maneuver, or intervention .
This document discusses randomized controlled trials (RCTs). It defines RCTs as experiments that randomly allocate subjects to a study group that receives treatment or a control group. RCTs are considered the gold standard for determining causality because randomization creates comparable groups free from bias. The document outlines the steps in conducting an RCT, including developing a protocol, randomizing subjects, intervening, following up, analyzing outcomes, and publishing results. It also discusses types of randomization, blinding, trial monitoring, and important ethical considerations like informed consent.
Observational Studies and their Reporting Guidelineskopalsharma85
Observational studies observe individuals and outcomes without influencing them. There are several types including case reports, ecological studies, cross-sectional studies, case-control studies, and cohort studies. Guidelines like STROBE were created to improve reporting transparency. Upcoming developments include using clinical registries as cohort studies and propensity score matching to assemble comparable groups. Observational studies provide important descriptive data and can study long-term outcomes unlike clinical trials.
Overview of systematic review and meta analysisDrsnehas2
Systematic reviews and meta-analyses aim to summarize research evidence on a topic. This document provides an overview of how to conduct systematic reviews and meta-analyses, including formulating a question, identifying relevant studies, extracting data, assessing bias, synthesizing data through meta-analysis if appropriate, interpreting results, and updating reviews. Key steps involve developing eligibility criteria, searching multiple databases, assessing risk of bias, addressing heterogeneity, and evaluating for publication bias. Conducting reviews using standardized methods helps provide reliable conclusions to inform clinical practice and policy-making.
This document discusses research design. It begins by defining research design as the overall framework or blueprint that guides a research project. Research design is important as it helps provide structure, direction, and organization to research operations. The document then outlines three main types of research design: exploratory design which aims to generate ideas and insights, descriptive design which describes characteristics, and hypothesis testing design which tests relationships between variables. Key aspects of each design type are also discussed such as appropriate sample sizes, objectives, and data collection methods.
This document provides an overview of research methodology. It discusses research designs such as experimental, correlational, survey, ethnographic, case study, historical, and action research. It also categorizes research as descriptive, associational, or intervention studies. Key aspects of quantitative and qualitative approaches are compared such as goals, design, data collection and analysis techniques. Examples are provided to illustrate different research problem types and appropriate methodologies.
演講-Meta analysis in medical research-張偉豪Beckett Hsieh
This document provides an overview of meta-analysis. It defines meta-analysis as a quantitative approach to systematically combining results from previous studies to arrive at conclusions about the body of research. It discusses key aspects of planning and conducting a meta-analysis such as defining the research question, searching for relevant literature, determining study eligibility, extracting data, analyzing effect sizes, assessing heterogeneity, and addressing publication bias. Software for performing meta-analyses and specific effect sizes like risk ratio and odds ratio are also mentioned.
This document discusses different types of research studies, including observational studies like case-control studies, cohort studies, and cross-sectional studies as well as experimental studies like clinical trials. It provides details on the design, strengths, and limitations of each type of study. Case-control studies look back in time to compare exposures between cases and controls, while cohort studies follow groups over time to examine exposure-outcome relationships. Cross-sectional studies measure exposure and outcome at the same time point. Clinical trials experimentally assign interventions to evaluate effects on outcomes. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses statistically synthesize evidence from multiple studies.
This document discusses cross-sectional studies, which measure exposure and health outcomes at the same point in time. It notes that cross-sectional studies can be descriptive, providing prevalence rates, or analytic, examining associations between exposures and outcomes. While able to generate hypotheses, cross-sectional studies cannot determine causation due to their inability to assess temporal relationships. The document also briefly touches on case reports and case series, which lack control groups for formally assessing relationships.
This document discusses and compares various study designs used in medical research, including observational studies like case reports, case series, case-control studies, and cohort studies as well as experimental studies like randomized controlled trials. It provides descriptions of each study design along with their pros and cons. For example, it notes that case reports are useful for raising hypotheses but very rare to use to make statements of causation, while randomized controlled trials allow for control of therapy but have ethical and cost issues.
This document discusses cross-sectional studies. It defines a cross-sectional study as an observational study that measures exposure and health outcomes in a population at a single point in time, providing a "snapshot" of prevalence. It describes key characteristics, including simultaneously collecting exposure and outcome data, estimating prevalence rather than incidence, and inability to determine temporal relationships between variables. The document outlines advantages as being quick and inexpensive but also limitations such as inability to establish causation.
Meta-analysis in Epidemiology is:
Useful tool for epidemiological studies which investigates the relationships between certain risk factors and disease.
Useful tool to improve animal well-being and productivity
Despite of a wealth of suitable studies it is relatively underutilized in animal and veterinary science.
Meta-analysis can provide reliable results about diseases occurrence, pattern and impact in livestock.
It is utmost essential to take benefit of this statistical tool for produce. more reliable estimates of concern effects in animal and veterinary science data.
This document discusses various types of epidemiological study designs. It describes observational studies like case studies, case series, cross-sectional studies and ecological studies which are descriptive in nature. Analytical observational studies include case-control and cohort studies. Experimental studies involve intervention and comparison groups like randomized controlled trials. The stages of epidemiological investigations are also outlined, from the diagnostic and descriptive phases to the analytical, intervention, decision-making and monitoring phases. Common epidemiological terms like relative risk, odds ratio and attributable risk are defined.
The document provides information on various study designs used in epidemiology, including descriptive and analytical studies. Descriptive studies like case reports and case series are used to identify frequencies, distributions and generate hypotheses. Analytical observational studies include cross-sectional, cohort and case-control studies used to test hypotheses. Cohort studies specifically follow groups over time to study exposure-disease relationships. They involve selecting exposed and non-exposed groups, defining and measuring exposures, following up to assess outcomes, and analyzing results including relative risk calculations.
The document provides an overview of basic statistics and research methodology, focusing on study designs. It discusses observational studies like cross-sectional, case-control and cohort studies as well as experimental studies like clinical trials. For each study design, it describes the key elements including temporal sequence, intervention, sampling methods, and how they differ from one another. It emphasizes the importance of selecting the appropriate study design based on the research question and highlights factors to consider like ability to determine causation, study of rare diseases, costs and time involved.
1) Blinding in clinical trials refers to keeping trial participants, investigators, and assessors unaware of treatment assignments to prevent bias.
2) Potential benefits of blinding include less psychological or physical bias in participants, better compliance, and less bias in outcome assessments.
3) Types of blinding include non-blinded (where all know assignments), single-blinded (one group remains unaware), and double-blinded (participants, investigators, and assessors remain unaware). Placebos are often used to maintain blinding.
Observational Research designs: detailed description Tarek Tawfik Amin
This document provides an overview of observational research designs presented by Professor Tarek Tawfik Amin. It outlines the objectives, methodology, contents and plan of the workshop on observational research designs. Descriptive designs such as case reports, case series, and cross-sectional studies are discussed. Case reports describe individual cases while case series report aggregates of individual cases. Cross-sectional studies observe a population at a single point in time to describe disease prevalence and other characteristics. Analytical observational designs like case-control and cohort studies are also introduced.
Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are considered the gold standard for evaluating medical interventions. RCTs involve randomly assigning participants into experimental and control groups to receive or not receive a treatment. This helps reduce bias. The first RCT was conducted in 1747 by James Lind to test treatments for scurvy. RCTs follow strict protocols, use randomization, have follow-ups, and assess outcomes with the aim of producing evidence-based results. They can evaluate all types of medical questions and help establish causal relationships, but require significant time and costs.
An epidemiological experiment in which subjects in a population are randomly allocated into groups, usually called study and control groups to receive and not receive an experimental preventive or therapetuic procedure, maneuver, or intervention .
This document discusses randomized controlled trials (RCTs). It defines RCTs as experiments that randomly allocate subjects to a study group that receives treatment or a control group. RCTs are considered the gold standard for determining causality because randomization creates comparable groups free from bias. The document outlines the steps in conducting an RCT, including developing a protocol, randomizing subjects, intervening, following up, analyzing outcomes, and publishing results. It also discusses types of randomization, blinding, trial monitoring, and important ethical considerations like informed consent.
Observational Studies and their Reporting Guidelineskopalsharma85
Observational studies observe individuals and outcomes without influencing them. There are several types including case reports, ecological studies, cross-sectional studies, case-control studies, and cohort studies. Guidelines like STROBE were created to improve reporting transparency. Upcoming developments include using clinical registries as cohort studies and propensity score matching to assemble comparable groups. Observational studies provide important descriptive data and can study long-term outcomes unlike clinical trials.
Overview of systematic review and meta analysisDrsnehas2
Systematic reviews and meta-analyses aim to summarize research evidence on a topic. This document provides an overview of how to conduct systematic reviews and meta-analyses, including formulating a question, identifying relevant studies, extracting data, assessing bias, synthesizing data through meta-analysis if appropriate, interpreting results, and updating reviews. Key steps involve developing eligibility criteria, searching multiple databases, assessing risk of bias, addressing heterogeneity, and evaluating for publication bias. Conducting reviews using standardized methods helps provide reliable conclusions to inform clinical practice and policy-making.
This document discusses research design. It begins by defining research design as the overall framework or blueprint that guides a research project. Research design is important as it helps provide structure, direction, and organization to research operations. The document then outlines three main types of research design: exploratory design which aims to generate ideas and insights, descriptive design which describes characteristics, and hypothesis testing design which tests relationships between variables. Key aspects of each design type are also discussed such as appropriate sample sizes, objectives, and data collection methods.
This document provides an overview of research methodology. It discusses research designs such as experimental, correlational, survey, ethnographic, case study, historical, and action research. It also categorizes research as descriptive, associational, or intervention studies. Key aspects of quantitative and qualitative approaches are compared such as goals, design, data collection and analysis techniques. Examples are provided to illustrate different research problem types and appropriate methodologies.
The document discusses experimental design in quantitative research. It explains that experimental design involves manipulating an independent variable and comparing its effects on a dependent variable between groups, while controlling for extraneous variables. Key aspects of experimental design discussed include having an intervention, making comparisons between groups, using control groups, determining when to collect data, selecting research sites, and communicating with subjects.
The document discusses various types of research designs and studies. It describes descriptive studies which characterize distributions without inferring causation. Cross-sectional studies capture data at a single point in time to determine prevalence. Cohort studies follow groups over time from exposure to outcome to establish risk. The document provides details on the design, advantages, and disadvantages of these observational study types.
The document discusses research design, which is a framework that specifies the procedures needed to structure and solve a research problem. It defines the information required and outlines measurement, sampling, data collection, and analysis plans. The document compares exploratory, descriptive, and causal research designs and cross-sectional vs longitudinal studies. Key factors like objectives, characteristics, findings, and outcomes are contrasted for different design types. Common errors in research are also outlined.
This document provides an overview of different types of research designs, including exploratory, descriptive, diagnostic, and hypothesis-testing designs. It defines what a research design is and lists key features of a good research design such as minimizing bias. For each type of design, it provides a brief definition and highlights important aspects to consider, such as the objective, data collection methods, sample selection, and data analysis. The overall purpose is to introduce and compare different approaches to research design.
The document discusses different aspects of research design including what research design is, its key components, and types of research design. It defines research design as the arrangement of conditions for collecting and analyzing data to combine relevance to the research purpose with efficient procedures. The main components of research design discussed are sampling design, observational design, statistical design, and operational design. It also outlines features of a good research design and key concepts like dependent and independent variables, extraneous variables, control, and research hypotheses. Finally, it discusses research design for exploratory, descriptive, diagnostic, and hypothesis-testing research studies.
This document summarizes key concepts related to reasoning, judgment, and decision making. It discusses:
- Deductive and inductive reasoning processes. Deductive reasoning uses known facts to make logical predictions, while inductive reasoning draws general conclusions based on specific observations.
- Common reasoning errors like belief bias, availability heuristic, and confirmation bias that can influence judgments.
- Factors that affect inductive arguments like representativeness of observations and number of observations.
- Conditional and categorical syllogisms as forms of deductive reasoning.
- Neurological evidence showing the prefrontal cortex is important for complex reasoning and problem solving.
- How framing, context, emotions
This document provides an overview of disabilities including definitions, classifications, history, causes and society's role. It defines disability as an interaction between a person's body and their environment according to the WHO. Disability exists on a continuum from mild to severe. The history discusses developments from ancient prosthetics to modern inclusion movements. Causes include genetic, medical and societal factors. Major forms of disability recognized are physical, intellectual, sensory and developmental. The document emphasizes that society often stigmatizes those with disabilities through segregation, shame and viewing them as burdens.
STAT225 Introduction to Statistics in the Behavioral Sciences.docxdessiechisomjj4
STAT225: Introduction to Statistics in the Behavioral Sciences
1. In a school election, five people run for student body president. The actual number of votes for each candidate would be a(n) variable. If the total number of votes were removed and the candidates were listed in order of least to most popular, this would be a(n)
variable.
a. ratio; ordinal b. ordinal; ratio c. ratio; nominal
d. nominal; ordinal
2. A researcher was interested in the effects of gender on attitudes toward women in leadership positions. The researcher surveyed a group of individuals, 12 of whom were men and 12 of whom were women. In this example, what is the explanatory/independent variable?
a. type of leadership position b. the 12 women in the study
c. the gender of the participants
d. the participants' attitudes toward women in leadership positions
3. A researcher was interested in the effects of gender on attitudes toward women in leadership positions. The researcher surveyed a group of individuals, 12 of whom were men and 12 of whom were women. In this example, what is the response/dependent variable?
a. type of leadership position b. the 12 women in the study
c. the gender of the participants
d. the participants' attitudes toward women in leadership positions
Please use the following information to answer questions 4 through 9
An industrial psychologist at a company has heard that desk bikes could help employees to lose weight, increase their stamina, and improve productivity. Sixteen employees were provided with desk bikes and the total number of pounds they lost, after one month, was recorded. Here are the data, in pounds lost, per employee:
4
8
12
0
2
20
18
0
12
6
12
16
10
8
12
4
4. What is the range of this distribution?
a. 0 t o 20 b. 20
c. 18 d. 4
5. What is the mean number of pounds that were lost by the employees in one month?
a.
9.88
b.
10.4
c.
12
d.
9
6. What is the median number of pounds that were lost by the employees in one month?
a.
8
b.
9
c.
10
d.
11
7. What is the variance of the number of pounds that were lost by the employees in one month?
a.
37.33
b.
9.72
c.
9.85
d.
6.11
8. What is the Interquartile range for this distribution?
a.
4
b.
8
c.
9
d.
12
9. How many outliers are in this distribution?
a. 0 b. 1
c. 2
d. Unable to determine from this information
The following graph depicts the typical relationship found between physiological arousal (anxiety) levels (e.g., range from 0 = no anxiety to 10=extreme anxiety) and test performance (e.g., percentage of correct answers on test).
Please use the following information to answer questions 10 and 11.
100%
Test Performance (in Percentage)
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Relationship Between Physiological Arousal Level and Test
Performance
0 2 4 6 8 10
Physiological Arousal Level
10. Based on this graph, what type of relation exists between physiological arousal level and test performanc.
CATCH Y TITLE WH AT AM I D O ING IN TH IS PAPE.docxcravennichole326
CATCH Y TITLE : WH AT AM I D O ING IN TH IS PAPE R?
S TUD E NT NAME
J on a t h a n Va r h ola
S O C 2 0 0 0 -XX
D ATE O F S UBMIS S IO N
1
I. In t r od u ct ion
a . S ociologica l Im a gin a t ion
i. Cor r ela t ion b et ween p er s on a l exp er ien ces of d r u g u s er s a n d
h ea lt h effect ou t com es p a r t ia lly s h a p ed b y s ociet y
ii. Im p or t a n t t o u n d er s t a n d u n d er lyin g r ela t ion s h ip s b et ween
a ll k ey a ct or s
b . Ps ych ot r op ic d r u gs ill effect s a r e a s ocia l p r ob lem
i. S ociet y a t la r ge a ffect ed in clu d in g m a n y d iffer en t a ge gr ou p s ,
b a ck gr ou n d s a n d h is t or ies of p eop le
ii. Q u a lit y of life d efla t ion a n d u n s a t is fa ct or y h ea lt h effect
ou t com es ou t weigh b en efit s fr om t r ea t m en t s t h a t r eq u ir e
p s ych ot r op ic d r u g u s e
iii. Med ica l in d u s t r y r egu la t ed a t a s ociet a l or m a cr o level
c . Ps ych ot r op ic d r u g u s e effect s on h ea lt h
i. Q u a lit y of life
1 . G en er a l h ea lt h p r ob lem s (F leis ch h a ck er et a l., 2 0 1 1 ).
ii. S id e effect s a ffect in g a ll a ges (Ch eu n g, Levit t & S za la i, 2 0 0 3 ).
1 . Ad oles cen t s (G r ek in , O b er leit n er , Tzilos & Zu m b er g,
2 0 1 1 ).
2 . E ld er ly (Alla et a l., 2 0 0 4 ).
iii. S u icid e a t t em p t s
1 . S u icid a l t h ou gh t s a n d a ct s (Cou gn a r d , G r ollea u ,
Molim a r d , Tou r n ier & Ver d ou x, 2 0 0 9 ).
d . Th es is S t a t em en t
i. In t h is p a p er , I will b e s t u d yin g t h e im p a ct of p s ych ot r op ic
d r u g u s e on u s er q u a lit y of life .
II. Lit er a t u r e Review
a . Poor h ea lt h b eh a vior (F leis ch h a ck er et a l., 2 0 1 1 )
i. WH O Q O L-BRE F r ed u ced q u a lit y of life in p s ych ot r op ic d r u g
u s er s
ii. S m ok e ciga r et t es m or e com m on ly, r ed u ced p h ys ica l a ct ivit y
a n d h igh er b od y m a s s in d ex; com p a r ed t o n on -u s er s
b . D ep en d en cy (Alla et a l., 2 0 0 4 )
i. Non con s u m er s h a ve b es t q u a lit y of life
ii. O cca s ion a l con s u m er s lim it ed in s ociet a l r oles a n d
exp er ien ce wor s e m en t a l h ea lt h
iii. Con t in u ou s con s u m er s h a ve wor s e s ocia l fu n ct ion in g a b ilit y
a n d a r e d ep en d en t on d r u gs
c . S id e E ffect s (Ch eu n g et a l., 2 0 0 3 )
i. H ea lt h y a d oles cen t s con cer n ed wit h m ed ica l r ea s on s of s id e
effect s
ii. Ad oles cen t s wit h d ep r es s ion con cer n ed wit h r es u lt in g
fu n ct ion a l im p a ir m en t s of s id e effect s
d . College u s e (G r ek in et a l., 2 0 1 1 )
i. Ps ych ot r op ic d r u g m ixin g wit h a lcoh ol on college ca m p u s es
ii. S t u d en t s m is u s in g d r u g ...
The document provides information on the Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma (FAST) exam. It discusses:
1) FAST is a focused ultrasound exam of the abdomen that can detect the presence of hemorrhage in under 2 minutes, making it a rapid alternative to other imaging modalities for trauma patients.
2) Studies have found FAST to have a sensitivity of 86-99% compared to other tests. It is indicated for any patient with blunt abdominal trauma, whether stable or unstable.
3) A standard FAST exam involves 4 views of the abdomen and heart to identify fluid that could indicate internal bleeding. It can detect over 100-250ml of free fluid in the pericardium or
ReviewE ffe c ts o f N u rs e -M a n a g e d P ro to c o.docxmalbert5
Review
E ffe c ts o f N u rs e -M a n a g e d P ro to c o ls in th e O u tp a tie n t M a n a g e m e n t o f
A dults W ith C h ro n ic C onditions
A System atic Review and M eta-analysis
R yan J. S h a w , P h D , RN; J e n n ife r R. M c D u f f ie , PhD ; C ris tin a C. H e n d rix , D N S , NP; A lis o n Edie, D N P , FNP; L in d a L in d s e y -D a v is , P h D , RN;
A v is h e k N a g i, M S ; A n d rz e j S. K o sin ski, PhD ; an d Joh n W . W illia m s Jr., M D , M H S c
Background: C h an ges in fe d e ra l h e a lth p o lic y are p ro v id in g m o re
access t o m ed ica l care f o r persons w ith c h ro n ic disease. P ro v id in g
q u a lity care m a y re q u ire a te a m a p p ro a c h , w h ic h th e A m e ric a n
C o lle g e o f Physicians calls th e "m e d ic a l h o m e ." O n e n e w m o d e l
m a y in v o lv e n u rs e -m a n a g e d p ro to cols.
Purpose: T o d e te rm in e w h e th e r n u rs e -m a n a g e d p ro to c o ls are e f
fe c tiv e f o r o u tp a tie n t m a n a g e m e n t o f a d u lts w ith diabetes, h y p e r
te n s io n , an d h y p e rlip id e m ia .
Data Sources: MEDLINE, C o c h ra n e C e n tra l R egister o f C o n tro lle d
Trials, EMBASE, a n d CINAHL fro m Jan ua ry 1 9 8 0 t h ro u g h January
2 0 1 4 .
Study Selection: T w o review e rs used e lig ib ility c rite ria t o assess all
title s , ab stracts, a n d fu ll te x ts an d resolved dis a g re e m e n ts by dis
cussion o r b y c o n s u ltin g a th ird review e r.
Data Extraction: O n e re v ie w e r d id d a ta a b s tra c tio n s a n d q u a lity
assessments, w h ic h w e re c o n firm e d b y a s econd review e r.
Data Synthesis: F rom 2 9 5 4 studies, 1 8 w e re in c lu d e d . A ll studies
used a reg istere d nurse o r e q u iv a le n t w h o titra te d m e d ic a tio n s by
f o llo w in g a p ro to c o l. In a m e ta-a na lysis, h e m o g lo b in A 1c level d e
creased b y 0 .4 % (9 5 % C l, 0 .1 % t o 0 . 7 % ) (n = 8); systolic and
d ia s to lic b lo o d pressure decreased b y 3 .6 8 m m H g (C l, 1 .0 5 to
6.31 m m H g ) an d 1 .5 6 m m H g (C l, 0 .3 6 t o 2 .7 6 m m H g),
re s p ective ly (n = 12); to ta l cho le s te ro l level decreased b y 0 .2 4
m m o l/L (9 .3 7 m g /d L ) (C l, 0 . 5 4 - m m o l/L decrease t o 0 .0 5 - m m o l/L
increase [ 2 0 .7 7 - m g / d L decrease t o 2 . 0 2 - m g / d L increase]) (n = 9);
a n d lo w -d e n s ity -lip o p ro te in c h o le ste rol level decreased b y 0.31
m m o l/L (1 2 .0 7 m g /d L ) (C l, 0 . 7 3 - m m o l/L decrease t o 0 .1 1 - m m o l/L
increase [ 2 8 .2 7 - m g / d L decrease t o 4 . 1 3 - m g / d L increase]) (n = 6).
Limitation: Studies had lim ite d de s c rip tio n s o f th e in te rv e n tio n s an d
p ro to c o ls used.
Conclusion: A te a m a p p ro a c h t h a t uses n u rs e -m a n a g e d p ro .
ReviewE ffe c ts o f N u rs e -M a n a g e d P ro to c o.docxhealdkathaleen
This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated the effectiveness of nurse-managed protocols for outpatient management of adults with chronic conditions like diabetes, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia. The review included 18 studies where nurses titrated medications according to written protocols. Meta-analyses found that nurse-managed protocols significantly reduced hemoglobin A1c levels in diabetes patients, blood pressure in hypertension patients, total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol in hyperlipidemia patients, compared to usual care. However, studies had limited descriptions of interventions and protocols. Overall, nurse-managed protocols may have positive effects on management of chronic conditions in outpatient settings.
This document provides an overview of different types of epidemiological studies. It discusses observational studies like descriptive and analytical studies, which include case-control and cohort studies. Experimental studies like randomized controlled trials, field trials, and community trials are also covered. Specific details are given on case-control and cohort study designs. The document also discusses cross-sectional, longitudinal, and community trial study types. Key epidemiological concepts like the epidemiological triad and reservoirs are briefly explained. Sample epidemiology questions and their answers are provided at the end.
This document discusses different types of study designs used in epidemiology. It begins by defining epidemiology and then outlines the objectives of the presentation which are to understand study design concepts, appropriately apply designs to research, and learn about advantages and disadvantages. Descriptive and analytical studies are introduced. Descriptive studies describe disease frequency and distribution without hypotheses, while analytical studies compare at least two groups to test hypotheses. Case-control and cohort studies are presented as common analytical designs. Case-control studies compare exposed vs unexposed groups among cases and controls to calculate odds ratios. Potential biases are discussed.
Case-control studies are observational studies, where two groups determine the level of exposure to a risk or a disease, by identifying a group of individuals with disease and for purpose of comparison, a group of people without the disease.
This document defines epidemiology and describes its aims and methods. Epidemiology is defined as the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states in populations and the application of this study to control health problems. The main aims of epidemiology are to describe population health status, explain disease etiology, predict disease occurrence, control disease distribution, and promote health. Descriptive epidemiology involves describing diseases in terms of time, place, and person, while analytical epidemiology aims to determine causal factors through observational studies like cohort and case-control studies.
This dissertation assesses the effectiveness of Payment for Ecosystem Service (PES) schemes in reducing rural poverty in African countries. The author conducted a literature review of studies on PES programs in Africa and analyzed their impacts on poverty. The results showed that poorer smallholders participated less than wealthier land users due to numerous constraints. While programs increased household income, many impacts were adverse, like temporary jobs and delays in payments. Overall, 75% of studies concluded PES had no significant impact on reducing poverty in Africa. The potential for PES to largely reduce poverty is minimal.
This document analyzes the relationship between financial systems and banking crises using data from 47 economies between 1990 and 1997. It finds that financial development is associated with market-based financial systems led by stock and securities markets. Banking crises may encourage financial development and a transformation to more market-based financial systems. The study uses categorical banking crisis indicators and financial structure/development indicators to characterize these relationships.
1) Cohort studies begin with groups of individuals who are alike in many ways but differ with respect to exposure to a certain factor, thought to influence the probability of occurrence of a disease or other outcome.
2) The groups are followed over time and the researchers record who does or does not develop the disease. This allows calculation of disease rates in the exposed and unexposed groups.
3) Cohort studies can provide strong evidence about whether an association reflects a causal relationship by assessing disease development over time in relation to exposure. However, selection bias and information bias must be considered.
John Cocker - A framework for the development and application of biological m...X2012
This presentation will be available to view as a discussion poster at the 7th International Conference on the Science of Exposure Assessment - X2012.
It will be presented on 03 July 2012 from 13.45 – 15.45 followed by a chaired discussion of all posters in this session on Health Effects and Biological Monitoring.
Appointments with the authors are available to book at https://x2012discussionposters.acuityscheduling.com
Prevalence of psychological morbidity among medically – illSathish Rajamani
The document summarizes a study on the prevalence of psychological morbidity among medically ill patients admitted to non-psychiatric wards in an Indian hospital. Some key findings were that 26.5% of patients experienced moderate distress, 23% were moderately depressed, 3% had moderate anxiety, and 3% had moderate somatization. There were significant associations found between psychological morbidity and certain demographic variables. The study highlights the importance of identifying and treating psychological issues in medically ill patients.
Running head DISCUSSION ESSAY1DISCUSSION ESSAY4Di.docxtodd271
Running head: DISCUSSION ESSAY
1
DISCUSSION ESSAY
4
Discussion Essay
Name
Academic Institution
April 1, 2019
Discussion Essay
Social control plays a major role in my own life since it dictates what I should do and what I should not. This element claims a degree of my liberty to make choices since I am compelled to please society or find myself in trouble. By this, I am expected to socialize with a certain class of people or else breaking this norm may leave people feeling disappointed with me. I am also expected to carry myself in accordance with my age or else people will think that I have lost my mind or being childish, while as I may simply be in a mood to let loose and just live my life in a care free way even for a moment, because after all it is my life.
On the other hand, social control helps to shape my life in becoming a responsible youth, and the desire to meet this expectation helps in clearing my perception of matters, which also develops my perspective in relation to what society considers moral or immoral. For example, it shapes my position regarding some activities that I would otherwise consider fun yet in the real sense are criminal in nature. As a young person, I feel energetic and adventurous and fun for me is anything thrilling (Lilly et al., 2011). Presently, there are many activities that a young person can indulge in for a thrilling experience. They could include crazy driving, trying out drugs and other substances, or a weekend getaway spree under no adult supervision, just to mention but a few. However, social control comes in handy and redirects such contemplations through the guiding sense it offers through the wisdom of experienced adults such as my parents, teachers, and other guardians in my life.
The power of social influence from my community has helped to develop a sense of commitment within me to follow our social norms. As such, I would say that I see the effect of Travis Hirschi’s social bond theory, which supposes that delinquency occurs in the absence of, or when social bonds are weak (Hirschi, 2002). However, crime is easily averted when social bonds are strong. As such, in an event of social deviance, the strong association I share with parents and community plays a vital role of dissuading me from indulging in delinquency because I have accepted the social conditions of my social group.
Social conditioning has helped me to become a college student instead of being involved in criminal activity. I come from a family that does not take misbehavior kindly. Getting involved in criminal activity is met with harshness from my parents, my father especially. I remember this time immediately after receiving my college acceptance letter. A new neighbor moved in with their two sons of my age and I was more than thrilled to have them for company. Apparently, both boys were using pot and they introduced me on this rainy Saturday evening (Lilly et al., 2011). My first experience set me out of contro.
Measurement of the angle θ For better understanding .docxwkyra78
Measurement of the angle θ
For better understanding I am showing you a different particle track diagram bellow. Where at
point C particle 𝜋 − 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Σ− are created and the Σ− decays into 𝜋 ∓ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 K− particles
The angle θ between the π− and Σ− momentum vectors can be determined by drawing tangents
to the π− and Σ− tracks at the point of the Σ− decay. We can then measure the angle between
the tangents using a protractor. Alternative method which does not require a protractor is also
possible. Let AC and BC be the tangents to the π− and Σ− tracks respectively. Drop a
perpendicular (AB) and measure the distances AB and BC. The ratio AB/BC gives the tangent of
the angle180◦−θ. It should be noted that only some of the time will the angle θ exceed 90◦ as
shown here.
Determining the uncertainty of Measurements
In part B, It is asked to estimate the uncertainty of your measurements of 𝜃 and r.
Uncertainty of measurement is the doubt that exists about the result of any measurement. You
might think that well-made rulers, clocks and thermometers should be trustworthy, and give
the right answers. But for every measurement - even the most careful - there is always a margin
of doubt.
It is important not to confuse the terms ‘error’ and ‘uncertainty’.
Error is the difference between the measured value and the ‘true value’ of the thing being
measured.
Uncertainty is a quantification of the doubt about the measurement result
Since there is always a margin of doubt about any measurement, we need to ask ‘How big is the
margin?’ and ‘How bad is the doubt?’ Thus, two numbers are really needed in order to quantify
an uncertainty. One is the width of the margin, or interval. The other is a confidence level, and
states how sure we are that the ‘true value’ is within that margin.
You can increase the amount of information you get from your measurements by taking a
number of readings and carrying out some basic statistical calculations. The two most
important statistical calculations are to find the average or arithmetic mean, and the standard
deviation for a set of numbers.
The ‘true’ value for the standard deviation can only be found from a very large (infinite) set of
readings. From a moderate number of values, only an estimate of the standard deviation can be
found. The symbol s is usually used for the estimated standard deviation.
Suppose you have a set of n readings. Start by finding the average:
For the set of readings x={16, 19, 18, 16, 17, 19, 20, 15, 17 and 13}, the average is �̅� =
∑ 𝑥𝑖
𝑛
=
17.
Next find (𝑥𝑖 − �̅�)
2
Then 𝑠 = √
(𝑥𝑖−�̅�)
2
𝑛−1
= 2.21
Lifetime calculation
In part C you are asked to determine the life time of the neutral particles from their
momentums.
The Σ− lifetime can be approximately determined using the measured values of the Σ− track
lengths. The average momentum of the Σ− particle can be found from its initial and fin
NurseReview.Org - Research Notes NLE Examinationjben501
The document provides an overview of research methods and processes. It discusses key concepts like hypotheses, research design, data collection and analysis. Specifically, it outlines 10 major steps of scientific research including identification of the research problem, literature review, data collection and analysis, and dissemination of findings. It also discusses different sampling methods, research designs, data collection techniques, and theories of leadership.
1. A case-control study is an observational study that compares exposures in individuals with an outcome (cases) to those in individuals without the outcome (controls) to determine if any exposures are associated with the outcome. It is used to establish causal relationships and measure the strength of associations.
2. The key steps include selecting cases and controls, measuring exposures through interviews or medical records, and analyzing the data such as by calculating odds ratios to assess associations. Controls should be selected from the same population and time period as cases to avoid biases.
3. Examples include studies of smoking and lung cancer, thalidomide use and birth defects. Nested case-control studies select cases and controls from an existing cohort study to enable retrospective
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
Thinking of getting a dog? Be aware that breeds like Pit Bulls, Rottweilers, and German Shepherds can be loyal and dangerous. Proper training and socialization are crucial to preventing aggressive behaviors. Ensure safety by understanding their needs and always supervising interactions. Stay safe, and enjoy your furry friends!
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
2. Objectives
Understand the concept of epidemiological
studies.
Understand the concepts of exposure,
outcome and risk.
Identify the association between exposure
and outcome.
Quantify the magnitude of association by
calculating and interpreting the measures
of association:
Relative risk or risk ratio
Odds ratio
2
3. Important study questions
1. What? 1. Event Surveillance data
sources
2. When? 2. Time
Surveillance,
3. Where 3. Place
? Descriptive studies
4. Person
4. Who?
5. Reason
Why? Analytical studies
5. 6. Way
6. How? 3
4. Concepts
Variable
Outcome or Effect variable
Measures of disease
Risk Factor or Exposure
variable
Measures of risk
Association of risk and
disease
Measures of association
4
5. Types of Study designs
Non Intervention Studies
Descriptive studies
Comparative (analytical) studies
Exploratory studies
Intervention Studies
The two categories of intervention studies are:
Experimental studies
Quasi-experimental studies.
5
6. Current
Classification
E P ID E M IO L O G IC A L S T U D Y D E S IG N S
D E S C R IP T IV E A N A L Y T IC A L
1 . C a s e R e p o rt O B S E R V A T IO N A L E X P E R IM E N T A L
2 . C a s e S e rie s
CASE CONTROL 1 . S in g le B lin d
3 . C o rre la tio n / E c o lo g ic a l
COHORT 2 . D o u b le B lin d
4 . C ro s s S e c tio n a l / P re v a le n c e
3 . T rip le B lin d
6
7. E p id e m io lo g ic a l S t u d ie s
I n te r v e n tio n a l s tu d ie s N o n -in te r v e n tio n a l S tu d ie s
o r O b s e r v a tio n a l
C lin ic a l F ie ld C o m m u n ity E x p lo r a to r y D e s c r ip tiv e
T r ia ls I n v e s tig a tio n I n te r v e n tio n
C a s e s e r ie s C r o s s -s e c tio n a l s u r v e y s
A n a ly tic a l
A n a ly tic a l S tu d ie s
C r o s s -s e c tio n a l C a s e -C o n tr o l C ohort
c o m p a ra tive
9. Descriptive Studies
Descriptive studies involve the
systematic collection and
presentation of data to give a
clear picture of a particular
situation and can be carried out
on a small or large scale.
Case studies
Case series
9
10. Comparative or Analytical
Studies
An ANALYTICAL STUDY attempts
to establish causes or risk factors
for certain problems. This is done
by comparing two or more groups,
some of which have or develop
the problem and some of which
have not.
10
11. Cross-sectional
Comparative studies
Many cross-sectional surveys focus on
comparing as well as describing
groups.
For example, a survey on malnutrition
may wish to establish:
The percentage of malnourished
children in a certain population
Socio-economic, physical, political
variables that influence the availability
of food 11
12. Cross Sectional
Surveys
Quantify the distribution of
certain variables in a study
population at a point of time.
They may cover, for example:
Physical characteristics of people,
materials, or the environment,etc
12
13. Cross Sectional
Surveys
The behavior of people and the
knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and
opinions that may help to explain that
behaviour (KAP studies), or events that
occurred in the population.
Cross-sectional surveys cover a sample
of the population. If a cross-sectional
study covers the total population it is
called a census.
13
14. Case Control
Studies
In a CASE-CONTROL STUDY, the
investigator compares one group
among whom a problem is (e.g.,
malnutrition) with another group,
called a control or comparison
group, where the problem is
absent to find out what factors
have contributed to the problem.
14
16. Odds Ratio (OR)
Measure of the strength of the
association between risk factor and
outcome.
The derivation of the Odds Ratio is
based on three assumptions:
- The disease being investigated must be
relatively rare.
- The cases must be representative of
those with the disease
- The controls must be representative of
those without disease
16
17. A study was conducted to find out
the association of smoking to
lung cancer. 100 cases of lung
cancer were interviewed about
their smoking status and 60 of
them were smokers. 200 Normal
people were also interviewed and
40 of them were smokers. Find
the odd ratio in the given
scenario and interpret your result
17
as well.
18. Biopsy Results
Smoking CA Lung CA Lung
Total
status Positive Negative
a+b
Yes a b
c +d
No c d
a +b +c + d
Total a+c b+d
18
19. Biopsy Results
Smoking CA Lung CA Lung
Total
status Positive Negative
a+b
Yes 60 40
c +d
No 40 160
a +b +c + d
Total 100 200
19
20. Odd ratio = a/c ÷ b/d
= a/c x d/b
= 60 x 160
40 x 40
= 6
Interpretation:
Lung cancer patients are six times
more likely to be smokers than normal
persons
20
21. Cohort Studies
In a COHORT STUDY, a group of individuals
that is exposed to a risk factor (study group)
is compared with a group of individuals not
exposed to the risk factor (control group).
The researcher follows both groups over time
and compares the occurrence of the problem
that he or she expects to be related to the
risk factor in the two groups to determine
whether a greater proportion of those with
the risk factor are indeed affected.
21
22. What is a cohort?
Cohort - Latin word for one of the 10
divisions of a Roman legion
A group of individuals
sharing same experience
followed up for a specified period of time
Examples
birth cohort
occupational cohort chemical plant workers
22
24. Cohort Study
Disease
Exposure Study starts occurrence
time
24
25. Cohort Study
Disease
Study starts Exposure occurrence
time
25
26. Cohort Study
Not
exposed Incidence among
Non exposed
exposed
Incidence among
exposed
26
27. Steps in designing Cohort
Studies
Identify group of exposed subjects
Identify group of non-exposed subjects
Follow-up both groups for disease
Measure frequency of disease
occurrence in both groups
Compare risks between exposed and
non-exposed group
27
28. Relative Ratio/Risk (RR)
Ratio of incidence of the disease
(or death)among exposed and the
incidence among non-exposed.
It is a direct measure (or index) of
the “strength” of the association
between suspected cause and
effect
28
29. A scientist wanted to study the effect of
smoking on lung cancer. He enrolled 500
people who were smoking and the 1000
individuals who were not smokers. After
15 years of follow up he found that
among the smokers 50 developed lung
cancer while among the non smokers 25
developed lung cancer. Find the relative
risk of lung cancer among smokers and
interpret the result as well
29
30. Biopsy Results
CA Lung CA Lung
Smoking status Total
Positive Negative
a+b
Yes a b
c +d
No c d
a +b +c + d
Total a+c b+d
30
31. Biopsy Results
CA Lung CA Lung
Smoking status Total
Positive Negative
500
Yes 50 b
1000
No 25 d
a +b +c + d
Total a+c b+d
31
32. Relative risk = Incidence of disease Among
Exposed Incidence of disease among
non exp
RR = a/a+b ÷ c/c+d
= 50/500 ÷ 25/1000
= 50/500 x 1000/25
= 4
Interpretation:
Smokers are 4 times more likely to
develop lung cancer than non smokers
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33. Exploratory Studies
An Exploratory study is a small-
scale study of relatively short
duration, which is carried out
when little else is known about a
situation or a problem.
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34. Intervention Studies
In intervention studies, the
researcher manipulates a
situation and measures the
effects of the manipulation.
Usually (but not always) two
groups are compared, one in
which the intervention takes
place (e.g.. treatment with a
certain drug) and another group
that remains "untouched" (e.g.,
treatment with a placebo) .
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35. Experimental Studies
Experimental design is the only type of
study design that can actually prove
causation.
In an EXPERIMENTAL STUDY, individuals
are randomly allocated to at least two groups.
One group is subjected to an intervention or
experiment, while the other group(s) is not.
The outcome of the intervention (effect of the
intervention on the dependent
variable/problem) is obtained by comparing
the two groups.
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36. Experimental studies
Exposed
Exposure Disease
assigned occurrence
Not exposed
Unethical to perform experiments on people if
exposure is harmful
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37. Past Present Future
Case-control study
Exposure Outcome
Prospective Cohort study
Exposure Outcome
Retrospective Cohort study
Exposure Outcome
Cross-sectional study
Exposure
Outcome
38. Classical Experimental
Study Design
The classical experimental study
design has three characteristics:
Manipulation
Control
Randomization
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39. Quasi – Experimental
Studies
In a QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL STUDY,
at least one characteristic of a true
experiment is missing.
One of the most common quasi-experimental
designs uses two (or more) groups, one of,
which serves a control group in which no
intervention takes place.
Both groups are observed before as well as
after the intervention, to test if the
intervention has made any difference.
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40. Tutorial
An epidemiologist wants to find out the
association of bottle feeding with the
incidence of diarrhoea.
He enrolled 100 children fed through
bottle and 80 experienced at least one
episode of diarrhoea during the follow up
period. Out of 150 on breast feeding 60
had experienced diarrhoe during the
same period.
Calculate the relevant measure of risk
Interpret your result
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