The document discusses various terms used to describe the phenotypic structure of fungi. It defines key terms like mycelium, hyphae, septa, and modifications of mycelium. It describes different types of fungal thalli like holocarpic, eucarpic, ectophytic, endophytic. It also discusses specialized somatic structures produced by fungi for nutrition, survival, and reproduction, including rhizomorphs, sclerotia, stroma, haustoria, and asexual fruiting bodies.
This is an illustrated account for Unit 1 of Coure Course III Mycology and Phytopathology of Bsc Hons Program - Introduction to True fungi including characters, affinities, thallus, cell wall, nutrition and classification
Disease cycle of wheat loose smut (PAT 201 Fundamentals of plant pathology)KrishnamoorthiM2
Loose smut has a wide distribution and can occur anywhere wheat is produced. It is caused by the fungus Ustilago tritici. Mild symptoms may be present prior to heading, including yellowish leaf streaks and stiff, dark green leaves. Affected plants head out early, producing sterile heads with clumped, sooty olive-black spores in place of healthy glumes and kernels. Spores are not enclosed by the seed coat, so are quickly dispersed by rain or wind after emergence. After spores disperse, only a bare rachis remains with a few fragments of glumes or awns. These spores infect other wheat plants at flowering, causing seed infection. Infected seed appear healthy. The best time to scout is after heading.
This is an illustrated account for Unit 1 of Coure Course III Mycology and Phytopathology of Bsc Hons Program - Introduction to True fungi including characters, affinities, thallus, cell wall, nutrition and classification
Disease cycle of wheat loose smut (PAT 201 Fundamentals of plant pathology)KrishnamoorthiM2
Loose smut has a wide distribution and can occur anywhere wheat is produced. It is caused by the fungus Ustilago tritici. Mild symptoms may be present prior to heading, including yellowish leaf streaks and stiff, dark green leaves. Affected plants head out early, producing sterile heads with clumped, sooty olive-black spores in place of healthy glumes and kernels. Spores are not enclosed by the seed coat, so are quickly dispersed by rain or wind after emergence. After spores disperse, only a bare rachis remains with a few fragments of glumes or awns. These spores infect other wheat plants at flowering, causing seed infection. Infected seed appear healthy. The best time to scout is after heading.
Biology I Presentation
FUNGI
We will learn
General characteristics of fungi
Structure of fungi
Economic Importance
Pathogenicity
Brief intro of some fungi
THE SIX KINGDOMS
Fungi are placed in a separate kingdom called the kingdom fungi
OF FUNGI
CHARACTERISTICS
The Characteristics of Fungi
Fungi are NOT plants
Nonphotosynthetic
Eukaryotes
Nonmotile
Most are saprobes (live on dead organisms)
The Characteristics of Fungi
Absorptive heterotrophs (digest food first & then absorb it into their bodies
Release digestive enzymes to break down organic material or their host
Store food energy as glycogen
The Characteristics of Fungi
Important decomposers & recyclers of nutrients in the environment
Most are multicellular, except unicellular yeast
Lack true roots, stems or leaves
fungi as a decomposers
The Characteristics of Fungi
Cell walls are made of chitin (complex polysaccharide)
Body is called the Thallus
Grow as microscopic tubes or filaments called hyphae
The Characteristics of Fungi
Some fungi are internal or external parasites
A few fungi act like predators & capture prey like roundworms
The Characteristics of Fungi
Some are edible, while others are poisonous
The Characteristics of Fungi
Produce both sexual and asexual spores
Classified by their sexual reproductive structures
The Characteristics of Fungi
Grow best in warm, moist environments
Mycology is the study of fungi
Mycologists study fungi
A fungicide is a chemical used to kill fungi
The Characteristics of Fungi
Fungi include puffballs, yeasts, mushrooms, toadstools, rusts, smuts, ringworm, and molds
The antibiotic penicillin is made by the Penicillium mold
FUNGI SIZE
NON-REPRODUCTIVE
Vegetative Structures
Hyphae
Tubular shape
ONE continuous cell
Filled with cytoplasm & nuclei
Multinucleate
Hard cell wall of chitin also in insect exoskeletons
Hyphae
Stolons – horizontal hyphae that connect groups of hyphae to each other
Rhizoids – rootlike parts of hyphae that anchor the fungus
Hyphae
Cross-walls called SEPTA may form compartments
Septa have pores for movement of cytoplasm
Form network called mycelia that run through the thallus (body)
Absorptive Heterotroph
Fungi get carbon from organic sources
Tips of Hyphae release enzymes
Enzymatic breakdown of substrate
Products diffuse back into hyphae
Modifications of hyphae
Fungi may be classified based on cell division (with or without cytokinesis)
Aseptate or coenocytic (without septa)
Septate (with septa)
Modifications of hyphae
Hyphal growth
Hyphae grow from their tips
Mycelium is an extensive, feeding web of hyphae
Mycelia are the ecologically active bodies of fungi
ASEXUAL & SEXUAL SPORES
REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES
REPRODUCTION
Most fungi reproduce Asexually and Sexually by spores
ASEXUAL reproduction is most common method & produces genetically identical organisms
Fungi reproduce SEXUALLY when conditions are poor & nutrients
Fungi are eukaryotic, spore bearing, achlorophyllous, heterotrophic organisms that generally reproduce sexually and asexually and whose filamentous, branched somatic structures are typically surrounded by cell walls containing chitin or cellulose or both with many organic molecules and exhibiting absorptive nutrition.Fungi frequently reproduce by the formation of spores. A spore is a survival or dispersal unit, consisting of one or a few cells, that is capable of germinating to produce a new hypha. Unlike plant seeds, fungal spores lack an embryo, but contain food reserves needed for germination. Many fungi produce more than one type of spore as part of their life cycles. Fungal spores may be formed via an asexual process involving only mitosis (mitospores), or via a sexual process involving meiosis (meiospores). Sexual and asexual reproduction may require different sets of conditions (e. g., nutrients, temperature, light, moisture).
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
6. Heterotrophy - 'other food'
Saprophytes or saprobes - feed on dead
tissues or organic waste (decomposers)
Symbionts - mutually beneficial relationship
between a fungus and another organism
Parasites - feeding on living tissue of a host.
Parasites that cause disease are called
pathogens.
The Characteristics of Fungi
14. Heterotrophic by Absorption
Fungi get carbon from organic sources
Hyphal tips release enzymes
Enzymatic breakdown of substrate
Products diffuse back into hyphae
Product diffuses back
into hypha and is used
Nucleus hangs back
and “directs”
15. Commonly called as vegetative body
or fungal body
A thallus is a simple, entire body of
the fungus devoid of chlorophyll with no
differentiation in to stem, roots and
leaves lacking vascular system
T
H
A
L
L
U
S
16. Tubular
Hard wall of chitin
Crosswalls may form
compartments (± cells)
Multinucleate
Grow at tips
H
Y
P
H
A
E
18. A net work of hyphae ( aggregation of
hyphae) constituting the filamentous
thallus of a fungus.
It may be colourless i.e., hyaline or
coloured due to presence of pigments in
cell wall.
The mycelium may be ectophytic or
endophytic.
M
Y
C
E
L
I
U
M
19.
20. TYPES OF FUNGAL THALLI
1.Plasmodium (plasma = moulded body):
It is a naked, multinucleate mass of protoplasm moving
and feeding in amoeboid fashion .
Eg. Plasmodiophora brassicae.
Plasmodiophora brassicae in host cell
.
22. 3.Multi cellular or filamentous
thallus: Majority of fungi i.e., a true fungi are
filamentous consisting of a number of branched, thread
like filaments called
hyphae.
Eg.Many fungi,Alternaria
23. Fungi based on reproductive
structures:
( holos = whole+karpos =fruit ):
If the thallus is entirely converted into one or
more reproductive structures, such thallus is called
holocarpic thallus.
Eg.Synchytrium
H
O
L
O
C
A
R
PI
C
25. (Eu=good+karpos=fruit):
If the thallus is differentiated into a
vegetative part which absorbs nutrients
and a reproductive part which forms
reproductive structures, such thallus is
called eucarpic thallus.
Eg.Pythium
E
U
C
A
R
P
I
C
29. fungus:
If the fungus penetrates into the host cell /
present inside the host, it is called
endophytic.Eg. Puccinia. Endophytic fungus
may be intercellular (hypha grows in
between the cells), or intra cellular ( hypha
penetrates into host cell).Eg.Ustilago, or
vascular (xylem vessels)
Eg. Fusarium oxysporum
E
N
D
O
P
H
Y
T
I
C
32. Inter cellular hyphae
produce haustoria, which
penetrate the host cell and
absorb food. These are
absent in intracellular
hyphae.
Endophytic intra cellular
mycelium absorb food
directly from protoplasm with
out
any specialized structures.
In ectophytic mycelium,
haustoria are produced in
epidermal cells.
EndophyticEctophytic
36. Septation in Fungi :(septum=hedge/partition) (
pl.septa)
Some fungal hyphae are provided with partitions or
cross walls which divide the fungus into a number of
compartments /cells. These cross walls are called septa.
Aseptate hypha/coenocytic hypha:
( Koinos=common,kytos=hollow vessel)
A hypha with out septa is called aseptate /non -
septate/ coenocytic hypha where in the nuclei are
embedded in cytoplasm.
Eg. lower fungi like Oomycetes and Zygomycetes.
37. Septate hypha: A hypha with septa or cross
walls is called septate hypha. Eg:higher fungi like
Asco, Basidio, Duaetro mycotina
38.
39. General types of septa:
1.Based on formation:
a)Primary septa :
These are formed in direct association with nuclear division
(mitotic or meiotic) and are laid down between daughter nuclei
separating the nuclei /cells. Eg. Higher fungi like Ascomycotina
and Basidiomycotina.
40. b)Adventitious septa:
These are formed independent of nuclear division
and these are produced to delimit the reproductive
structures.
Eg. lower fungi like Oomycetes and Zygomycetes in
which septa are produced below gametangia (sex
organs) which separate them from rest of the ce lls.
41. 2.Based on construction:
a) Simple septa:
It is most common which is a plate like, with or without
perforation.
b) Complex septa:
A septum with a central pore surrounded by a barrel
shaped swelling of the septal wall and covered on both
sides by aperforated membrane termed the septal
pore cap or parenthosome. Eg. Dolipore septum in
Basidiomycotina.
42.
43.
44. 3.Based on perforation:
a)Complete septa : A Septum is a solid plate
without any pore or perforations.
Eg. Adventitious septa in lower fungi.
b)Incomplete septa: A septum with a central
pore.
Complete septa Incomplete septa
46. Types of Plectenchyma:
1.Prosenchyma: It is a loosely woven tissue. The component
hyphae retain their individuality which can be easily distinguishable
as hyphae and lie parallel to one another. Eg. Trauma in Agaricus.
2. Pseudoparenchyma :
It is compactly woven tissue. It consists of clo sely packed cells
which are isodiametric or oval in shape resembling parenchymatous
cells of plants and hence the name.
The component hyphae loose their individuality and are not
distinguishable as hyphae.
Eg. Sclerotial bodies of Sclerotium and rhizomorph of
Armillariella.
47.
48. MODIFICATION OF MYCELIUM
SPECIALISED SOMATIC
STRUCTURES
Purpose :
1. to obtain nourishment i. e., for nutrition .
2. to resist or tolerate unfavourable conditions for their survival i.e.,
over wintering, over summering.
3. for reproduction
1.Rhizomorphs: ( rhiza=root, morph=shape)
Thick strands of somatic hyphae in which the hyphae loose their
individuality and form complex tissues that are resistant to adverse
conditions and remain dormant until favourable conditions return.
The structure of growing tip of rhizomorphs res emble that of a root
tip, hence the name rhizomorph. Eg. Armillariella mellea.
50. 2. Sclerotium:
(skleron=hard) pl.sclerotia:
It is a hard, round ( looks like mustard seed)/
cylindrical or elongated (Claviceps ) dark coloured ( black
or brown) resting body fo rmed due to aggregation of
mycelium, the component hyphae loose their
individuality , resistant to unfavourable conditions and
remain dormant for a longer period of time and
germinate on the return of favourable conditions.
Eg. Sclerotium, Rhizoctonia.
52. 3. Stroma :
(stroma=mattress) pl.stromata.
It is a compact somatic structure looks like a mattress or a
cushion on which or in which fructifications ( spores or fruiting
bodies ) are usually formed.
a. Sub stomatal stroma:
cushion like structure formed below epidermis in sub
stomatal region from which sporophores are produced.
Eg. Cercospora personata.
54. B. Perithecial stroma:
When reproductive bodies like perithecia of some
fungi are embedded characteristically throughout
periphery of stroma, such stroma are called perithecial
stroma. Eg . Claviceps, Xylaria.
Claviceps XYLARIA
56. 4. Haustorium :
( hauster=drinker) pl.haustoria.
It is a outgrowth of somatic hyphae regarded as
special absorbing organ produced on certain hyphae
by parasitic fungi for obtaining nourishment by
piercing into living cells of host. They may be knob
like( Albugo), elongated ( Erysiphe, Uncinula),finger
like (Peronospora ).
58. 5.Rhizoids:
(rhiza=root, oeides=like)
These are slender root like branched structures found in
the substratum produced by some fungi which are
useful for anchoring the thallus to substratum and for
obtaining nourishment from the substrate.
Eg. Rhizopus stolonifer.
59.
60. 6. Appresorium:
(apprimere=to press against) pl.appressoria
A flattened tip of hyphae or germ tube acting as
pressing organ by attaching to the host surface
and gives rise to a minute infection peg which
usually grows and penetrates the epidermal cells
of the host.
Eg. Puccinia, Colletotrichum, Erysiphe.
62. Conidia / Conidiospores :
( konis=dust ; oides=like )
Conidia are non -motile asex ual spores which may arise
directly from somatic hyphae or from specialized conidiogenous
cells ( a cell from which conidia are produced) or on
conidiophore ( hypha which bear conidia).
Conidia are produced freely on conidiophore ie.,at the tips or
sides of conidiophore or may be produced in specialized asexual
fruiting bodies
viz., pycnidium, acervulus, sporodochium and synne mata.
63.
64. Asexual fruiting bodies:
(a) Pycnidium:
( pl.pycnidia )
It is a globose or flask shaped fruiting body lined in
side with conidiophores which produceconidia. It
may be completely closed or may have an opening
called ostiole.
Pycnidiummay be provided with small papillum or
long neck.
Eg.Phomopsis.
66. (b) Acervulus:
( pl.acervuli ) A flat or saucer shaped fruiting
body with a stromatic mat of hyphae producing
conidia on short conidiophores.An acervulus
lacks a definite wall structure and not having an
ostiole or definite line of dehiscence.
Eg.Colletotrichum,Pestalotiopsis
67.
68. .
(c) Sporodochium :
(pl.sporodochia) A cushion shaped asexual
fruiting body .
Conidiophores arise from a central stroma and
they are woven together on a mass of hyphae and
produce conidia.Eg.Fusarium.
69.
70. (d)Synnemata: ( pl.synn ema )
A group of conidiophores often united at the
base and free at the top . C onidia may be
formed at its tip or along the length of synne
ma, resembling a long handled feather duster.
Eg. Graphium.
72. ASCOCARPS:
Ascocarps are the fruiting bodies of members
of Sub-division Ascomycotina which produce
the asci containing the ascospores.
In some members such as yeasts, Taphrina
fruiting bodies are not produced and the asci
are naked.
73. Types of ascocarps : 4 types.
1. Cleistothecium :
It is a completely closed ball like( globose)
ascocarp a nd it is made up of a wall with
pseudoparenchymatous tissue called as
peridium.
In some species these are provided with
outer appendages. Asci are scattered or
distributed at different levels in ascocarp.
When the a sci are matured,ascospores are
rele ased by disintegration of peridium.
E g. Eurotium, Erysiphe.
75. Perithecium ;
It is a flask shaped more or less closed ascocarp
but provided with a pore or opening at the tip
called true ostiole through which ascospores
are released at maturity.
Ostiole is lined inside with sterile structures
called asperiphysis. The wall is called peridium .
The asci are arranged in definite layer called
hymenium.
In between the asci, there are sterile thread like
structures called paraphyses which help in
liberation of asc ospores.Eg. Claviceps, Xylaria.
77. 3. Apothecium.:
It is an open cup shaped ascocarp with a wall
peridium. The asci are arranged in a layer called
hymenium , either exposed from the beginning
or later exposed.
The sterile structures called paraphyses ( tips
free / not fused ) are also present intermingled
with asci which help in liberation and dispersal
of ascospores. Epitheciumis a layer on the
surface of hymenium of an apothecium formed
by fusion of ti ps of paraphyses over the asci.
E g. Peziza, Tuber.
78.
79. 4. Ascostromata:
The asci are formed directly in cavities called
locules with in stroma. The stroma itself
serves as wall of ascostroma.
Sterile structures called pseudoparaphyses
are present in ascostromata.Eg.Elsinoe If the
ascostromata is with a single locule ie., An
unilocular ascostroma which resembles
perithecium with pseudoparaphyses is
called as pseudothecium.
E g.Venturia.