This document defines argument and outlines how to develop effective arguments. It discusses three models of argument: as a fight, as a two-sided debate, and as a collaborative process. The document recommends viewing argument as a truth-seeking process that results in a persuasive product. It also outlines five levels of argument development that move from personal opinions to an understanding of audience assumptions and values. The document provides a framework for writing a classical argument.

1. Argument

2. This presentation is based on Chapter 13: Writing
a Classical Argument, from The Allyn and Bacon
Guide to Writing (6th edition).
The purpose of this presentation in ENG 1123 is to
define argument, and to explain how to evaluate
and develop arguments.

3. It starts with a question!
What is argument? (Discuss.)
Why do we need it?

4. MODEL: ARGUMENT AS FIGHT

5. Argument as fight
Where do we find examples of argument as
hostility-charged fist waving, argument as
shouting match?

6. THE MEDIA! THE GOVERNMENT! FAMILY FEUDS!
POLITICAL TALK SHOWS, CAMPAIGN ADVERTISEMENTS, BLOGS, NEWSPAPERS, ETC.

7. MODEL: ARGUMENT AS TWO-SIDED DEBATE
OR ARGUMENT AS PRO-CON DEBATE

8. MODEL: ARGUMENT AS COMMITTEE DELIBERATION
OR COLLABORATIVE EXPLORATION WITH CONSIDERATION OF MULTIPLE POINTS OF VIEW

9. Which model should we
prefer in ENG 1123?
While the fight model charges argument with
hostility and the pro-con debate reduces every
argument to two sides and the ultimate goal is to
win, the model of a committee of diverse voices
dedicated to the common cause of finding a
solution to a problem allows us to see argument
as both process and product.

10. Argument has two main
components:
Truth seeking: open Persuasion: the art of
minded search for the making a claim on an
best course of action issue and justifying it
or solution to a convincingly so that
problem, taking into the audience’s initial
account all of the resistance to your
available information position is overcome
and alternative points and they are
of view compelled to move
toward your position

11. Aren’t truth seeking and
persuasion at odds?
Truth seeking requires that we relax our certainties and
be willing to change our views
Persuasion asks us to be certain enough to convince
others
If we avoid argument as fight and argument as pro-con
debate, approaching argument as a truth seeking
process that results in a persuasive product, or argument
essay, the two work well together.

12. Stages of development
Level 1: Personal opinion: We often start
arguments with strong personal opinions but have
trouble justifying our opinions with reasons and
evidence; we often rely on circular arguments that
are insulting to those who hold opposing
viewpoints.
Think of examples. Discuss. When you start from a
position of certainty, what is the focus of your
research?

13. *When the writer’s
purpose is to argue a
point from an
established personal
opinion, the focus of
research is to find
evidence that supports
the view one already has
Level 2: Argument structured as claim supported by one
or more reasons: This stage is a huge leap from the
previous one. Having made the leap to support a claim,
the writer can now make develop a structured plan with
point sentences (the reasons) and particulars (evidence).
Pursue one of the previously discussed topics to develop
point sentences and particulars.
Our goal in this class is to develop arguments beyond
level 2.

14. Level 3: Increased attention to truth seeking: A
level 3 argument writer becomes increasingly
engaged with the complexity of the issue as he or
she considers multiple points of view, conducts
research, and evaluates stances.
Level 3 argument writers are willing to change their
positions when they see the power of other
arguments.

15. Level 4: Ability to articulate the unstated
assumptions underlying their arguments.
This argument writer understands that each
reason in an argument is based upon an
assumption, value, or belief (often unstated) that
the audience must accept if the argument is to be
persuasive.
At this stage, students are able to identify and
analyze their own assumptions as well as those of
their intended audience.

16. Level 5: Ability to link an argument to the values
and beliefs of the intended audience. When writers
understand their audience’s values and beliefs,
they can adapt the structure and tone of an
argument to more effectively appeal to them.
Level 5 argument writers who approach argument
as both process and product, thus, become skilled
in truth seeking and persuasion.

17. What is the first step to formulating an
argument, then,? •Mississippi voter
•mother of child who
“cannot stay on task”
•community college
employee
•over weight American
Find an arguable issue. •SES parent
Make a list of several communities that you belong
to and then identify one or more questions
currently being contested within those
communities.
Pick two or three issues of interest to you, and try
framing them in different ways: as broad or narrow
questions, as open-ended or “yes/no” questions.

18. Framework for a classical argument:
Introduction: grabs the reader’s attention, explains the issue,
provides background info, thesis, preview of development
Presentation of writer’s position: presents reasons to accept
thesis (each tied to a value or belief held by the audience)
Summary of opposing views: sums up views differing from
writer’s without bias (should be fair and complete)
Response to opposing views: refutes opposing views, illustrates
the weaknesses in them, and possibly concedes some strengths
Conclusion: Brings closure, sums up argument, leaves lasting
impression, often calls for action or relates topic to a larger
context