The document provides historical context on the Puritans and Pilgrims in America, including: 1) It explains the religious and political tensions in England that led many Puritans and Pilgrims to immigrate to America in the early 1600s. 2) It describes the founding of Plymouth colony by the Pilgrims in 1620 and their initial cooperation with the Wampanoag tribe through a treaty with Chief Massasoit. 3) It discusses the founding and growth of the Massachusetts Bay Colony by Puritans in the 1630s, who sought to establish a "city upon a hill" and a model Christian society, though they did not always treat Native Americans justly. 4

1. Learning Unit #08 Lecture
“Explaining the Salem Witch Hunt”

2. What’s a ‘Pilgrim’?
What’s a ‘Puritan’?
Robert W. Weir, Embarkation of the Pilgrims
To distinguish Pilgrims from Puritans--who preceded the former in English
history but, as a group, arrived later in North America--we should understand
how religious issues dominated English politics in the 1600s.

3. Elizabeth I died childless in
1603, the last of the Tudor
monarchs. She was a
Protestant, but she let the
Church of England keep its
Catholic-style power structure.
She was head of the Church
and appointed bishops and
archbishops as administrators.
Anglican Church services
were required by law to follow
The Book of Common
Prayer. Anglican clergymen
still dressed like Catholic
priests. Every English subject
was automatically a member
and paid taxes to support this
state-sponsored church.

4. A Puritan
family, ca.
1560s.
To some Protestants, the Church of England still looked and felt a
whole lot like the Catholic Church, and this made them so
uncomfortable that in the 1560s they began agitating for its
reform or ‘purification.’ Puritanism appealed to some aristocrats,
some lawyers, and some among the urban ‘middling sort,’ but it
found more numerous followers among small farmers, master
craftsmen, and small merchants--people who were self-
employed, economically independent, and industrious.

5. Three Branches of Dissent
• Presbyterians did not object to a state
church but wanted it ruled by local groups of
elders (presbyters), not bishops; they
practiced infant baptism.
• Separatists, or Pilgrims believed the
Church of England was too corrupt to be
redeemed, and they must withdraw into
independent congregations; pro-King, anti-
Church; early Baptists, they did NOT practice
infant baptism.
• Puritans believed themselves to be true C.
of England, which could still be reformed
from within in a model Christian society; anti-
King, pro-Church; they practiced infant
baptism.

6. 5-Points of Calvinism
All these dissenters shared a belief in the ideas of John Calvin, which are
summed up by the TULIP acrostic above. Belief in predestination is generally
regarded as the most salient characteristic of Calvinism. “Perseverance of the
Saints” carries the same meaning as the phrase “Once saved always saved”--
which some Protestant denominations still espouse.

7. Queen Elizabeth and her
successors, the Stuarts,
persecuted Puritans and all
other such dissenting sects.
The idea that subjects might
follow different religions than
their monarchs sounded like
a recipe for disorder &
revolution in the 1600s. King
James I (of “Jamestown” &
KJV Bible-fame) would not
be as harsh with dissenters
as his son, Charles I, but
James I, first Puritans had a problem with
Stuart King James anyway because he
of England lived openly as a
homosexual.
James I reigned from 1603-1625.

8. When the Stuarts--relatives of
the Tudors and previously
monarchs of Scotland--were
invited by Parliament to
assume England’s throne, the
deal was this: the Stuarts would
not attempt to rule as absolute
monarchs but share power with
Parliament in a constitutional
arrangement. The Stuarts were
also required to abandon their
Catholic faith or at least conceal
it. Prior to 1688, however, they
remained Catholic sympathizers
who sometimes openly sought
The House of Stuart’s
to ‘Catholicize’ the C. of England Coat of Arms
and other institutions.

9. Charles I was arguably the worst
Charles I
offender. He tried unsuccessfully reigned
to rule as an absolute monarch from 1625
without Parliament. But he still -1649.
needed to collect taxes to
suppress religious dissent by
force. When he tried to tax w/o
consulting Parliament, he
sparked the English Civil War,
pitting the forces of Parliament,
known as the ‘Roundheads,’
against the King’s supporters,
known as the ‘Cavaliers.’ The
Puritan and Parliamentary causes
were one & the same during this
conflict, which saw the
Roundheads prevail and Charles’
head roll, literally, at his execution.

10. Once Parliament wins the English Civil
War, England, Scotland, & Ireland
experience a Puritan dictatorship under
Parliament’s military leader, Oliver
Cromwell. During this era (Cromwell’s
Protectorate) Puritans gain a reputation
for being against anyone having a
good time. Gambling, dancing, theater-
going, non-religious music, playing
cards--all banned, more because of
Puritan intolerance for frivolous
activities than sin. Pilgrims (since
1620), Puritans (since 1632), and other
Englishmen had been coming to New
England for decades. But the great
Oliver Cromwell ruled wave of migration dried up during the
from Civil War years & Protectorate as the
1653-58. Puritan movement unsuccessfully
tried to transform the British Isles into the model Christian society. The
backlash against military rule following Cromwell’s death brought the
Stuarts back to the throne.

11. The Stuart Restoration
After Cromwell’s death,
Charles II—who had been
exiled in France following his
father’s execution—was
invited by a new Parliament to
take back the throne, with the
understanding that he would
conceal his Catholic
sympathies & not try to be an
absolutist king like his father.
He did not always live up to
the agreement, but at least he
was cautious about pursuing
his true ambitions &
expressing his beliefs.
Charles II reigned from 1660-1685

12. Effects of Stuart Rule on M.B.C.
In 1684, Charles II dissolved Gov.
the original charter of the
Massachusetts Bay Colony,
Andros
which had allowed the
Puritan leaders to govern as
they saw fit. “The Dominion
of New England” was now
being run by an arrogant
Englishman named Sir
Edmond Andros. Andros
was questioning whether
long-established farmers
really owned their land.
Worse, he was insisting that
any Christian could come
into the community. That
meant Quakers had to be
tolerated!

13. James II
When Charles II died
without an heir in 1685, his
brother James II became
king. James II was openly
Catholic and determined to
push the country back in that
direction. Parliament was
equally determined to resist,
& they deposed James II in a
nearly bloodless coup called
the “Glorious
Revolution” (1688-89). At
this time Gov. Andros was
removed from his post,
leaving New England without
James II secure protection from
England.

14. The Glorious Revolution, 1688
Parliament next offered the
throne to James II’s
Protestant daughter, Mary,
and her Dutch husband,
William. Parliament took
advantage of the situation to
claim more power. From then
on, members speaking in
Parliament had freedom of
speech, and the new
monarchs had to agree to no
more taxation without
representation (sound
familiar?) like Charles I
had tried to get away with.

15. Timeline of English & Puritan History
• Stuarts became English monarchs in 1603.
• Reign of James I (1603-1625); Charles I (1625-1649).
• 1630 -- Puritans formed Massachusetts Bay Co. and left
England; by 1640 Mass. Bay Colony had 20,000 settlers.
• English Civil War (1642-1651); immigration to New
England dropped off; Puritans/Parliament won war.
• Cromwell’s Protectorate (1653-1658); Puritans were in
charge in England!
• Restoration of Charles II (1660)
• Charles II dies, 1685; James II (1685-88); Gov. Andros
• 1688 – William and Mary; “Glorious Revolution”
• 1691 – Reorganization of Plymouth and Massachusetts
Bay into one colony.
• 1691-92 – Salem Witch Hunt

16. The point is that what happened back in
England had a big impact on English
settlers in America. For example, political
fallout in the aftermath of the Glorious
Revolution created a power vacuum/shake-
up locally in Massachusetts that made
possible the devastating Indian attacks of
1688 as well as the 1692 witch trials. Now
that you have some idea about the historical
background, it’s time to look at Pilgrims,
Puritans, ‘Strangers,’ & Native Americans in
the New World.

17. The Plague of 1617 in the Northeast
Unknown disease
transmitted by
passing European
cod fishermen.
Hardest hit were the
coastal tribes of what
will become
Massachusetts.
Within three years,
an estimated 90-96%
of these native
inhabitants were
wiped out. From
1620-1635, outbreaks
of smallpox further
devastated the
Indian population.
When Pilgrims arrived
in 1620 they occupied
lands of these
deceased.

18. Plymouth Colony
Although violent
incidents occasionally
occurred, the net result
of the early-1600s
epidemics was that the
English settlers, for
their first fifty years in
The First Thanksgiving,* 1621 New England (unlike
the Virginia Colony),
would face no real
threat from the
Indians--not until King
Philip’s (a.k.a.
Metacom’s) War
(1675).
(*Not to be confused with the later Puritan Thanksgiving for victory in the 1637 Pequot War, from which our contemporary holiday was historically
derived. Days of either feasting (Thanksgivings) or fasting occurred periodically in Pilgrim/Puritan society throughout the year.)

19. Pilgrims & ‘Strangers’ Arrived, 11/11/1620
• Founded Plymouth Colony in what is now Massachusetts.
• Pilgrims, or Separatists, made up 35 of 102 aboard the
Mayflower; the others they considered “Strangers” to their
religious fellowship.
• They set out for Virginia, so how did they end up in
Massachusetts?
• Hijacking theory: Perhaps there was a conspiracy among the
Pilgrim fanatics to land somewhere the Anglican Church was
not established, but straying off course could also have
happened for other reasons (bad weather; human error).
• Mayflower Compact – agreement granting political rights to
all male colonists who would abide by the colony’s laws. The
Pilgrims were in the minority & had to make the compact to
unify all aboard behind the colonizing effort.

20. William Bradford’s Treaty w/ Massasoit
The Wampanoags were hit hard by the 1617 plague and sought the Plymouth
Colony as military allies against their more populous inland neighbors.

21. In exchange
for their
military help,
the early
Pilgrims were
able to obtain
food and the
knowledge of
how to grow it
from the
Indians.

22. Squanto
Having the nickname “Squanto,”
in Algonkian, is like being named
“Satan” in English. Squanto had
been kidnapped & taken to Europe
& had made his way back to
America around the time the
Pilgrims arrived. All communication
between the local Indians &
Pilgrims was translated by Squanto,
putting him in a powerful position.
Squanto plotted to replace
Massasoit as the Indians’ leader,
but his scheme ended with his
mysterious death, which likely was
an assassination ordered by
Massasoit.

23. The “Pagan Pilgrim”
Thomas Morton, the lord of
Merrymount, a plantation a
few miles from Plymouth ran
afoul of Pilgrim authorities
there when he freed his
indentured servants, erected
a Maypole, and promoted
interracial sexual couplings
between Merrymount’s
“bachelors” and their local
Indian “brides.” He was
shipped back to England
where he penned a witty
critique of Plymouth settlers
and gave high praise to the
Indians in New English
Canaan (1637).

24. Puritans & the Massachusetts Bay
“We shall be Colony
as a city
upon a hill; Unlike the Virginia
the eyes of
all people Colony--populated largely
are upon by young, male indentured
us.” servants--the male-female
sex ratio of Massachusetts
was roughly equal because
families tended to make the
journey. The masters of
these households included
some of the foremost
commoners in England who
John Winthrop was among the were Puritan true-believers
leading lawyers in England at the as well as company
time he immigrated. directors.

25. Of course,
not all who
came were
Puritans.
Non-
Puritans &
even non-
believers
came also,
but they
lived under
the rules of
The Great Migration
the Elect,
and only
church
members
could vote =
theocracy.

26. Puritans in America
• Believed they had a special covenant
with God to establish a true Christian
community that would be an example
to the world.
• Believed they were justified in taking
Indian lands. According to John
Cotton: “God makes a country,
though not altogether void of
inhabitants, yet void in the place
where they reside. Where there is a
vacant place, there is liberty for the
sons of Adam or Noah to come and
inhabit, though they neither buy it nor
ask their leaves.”
• The Puritans modeled themselves
after the Old Testament Children of John Cotton,
Israel, who had taken the land of Leading Puritan Minister
Canaan from its original inhabitants.

27. Puritans & Indians
• All white men in MB colony required to use
firearms; no guns for Indians; no
missionary activity for first 13 yrs; Indians
held accountable to white law.
• Believed Christians had a right to take the
land of non-Christians.
• Believed “civilized” people had a right to
“settle” lands that others simply “roamed.”
• Puritans said: “God directs Puritan policy
and God wants the Puritans to have the
land.”

28. The English boasted they
would not use violence
as the Spanish had to
coerce Indians. The
English predicted they
would go to the New
World & peacefully
coexist with & eventually
convert the Indians. Here
is the Great Seal of the
Massachusetts Bay
Colony. The Indian says:
“Come Over and Help Us.”
Do you really think this was
the desire of many Indians?

29. Because
Puritans
doubted that any
of the Elect were
among the
Indian
population,
converting them
was not a big
John Eliot was
priority.
a Puritan missionary who
translated Nevertheless,
some Indians
did convert &
became
acculturated to
white ways of
living. Called
“Red Puritans,”
they lived in
“praying towns.”
John Eliot was a missionary to the Indians and translated
Scripture into the Algonquian language.

30. Woodcut
showing
attack on
Pequot
village.
The English failed in their idealistic goal to treat the Indians better than the
Spanish had, notably against the Pequots in 1637. The English motive for
their destruction was control of the fur trade in Connecticut.

31. The Pequot War, 1637
• Pequots and Narragansetts were two strongest
tribes in area.
• Pequots made plea for unity to Narragansetts
but were rebuffed.
• Puritan aims were to drive Dutch traders from
southern New England and obtain Pequot lands.
• Puritans & their Narragansett allies exterminated
most of Pequot tribe and enslaved any survivors.
• English could be just as brutal as Spanish.
• Our national Thanksgiving holiday has its roots
as a New England regional holiday
commemorating the Puritans’ victory over the
Pequots.

32. Metacomet’s War (a.k.a. King
Philip’s War)
In 1675, when Metacomet--
a.k.a. King Philip--launched a
pan-Indian war against
encroaching English
settlements, over five decades
of generally peaceable
Anglo-Indian relations came to
an end. During this conflict,
the English lost any ability to
distinguish between their
‘good’ Red Puritan allies and
the ‘bad’ Indians who followed
Metacomet. In the aftermath,
both “praying Indians” and
troublesome Indians were
indiscriminately rounded up by
the English and sold into
Caribbean slavery.
One-third of Native Americans and one-tenth
of New England colonists died in Metacomet’s War.

33. • MBC population reached
60,000 by 1675.
Metacomet’s War
• Fur trade was winding
down in Massachusetts.
• First pan-Indian attack
against whites.
• Organized by
Metacomet (a
Wampanoag) but other
tribes quickly became
involved.
• Disease, food
shortages, neutrality
and/or betrayals by
some powerful tribes
brought Metacomet’s
War to an end.
• Of 90 Puritan towns, 52
were attacked and 12
destroyed.

34. Indians Blamed
for Salem Witch
Hunt!
In Cotton Mather’s account of
the Salem Witch Hunt--written
after the fact--he deflects
blame & responsibility from
his own actions by
determining that Native
American sorcery was the
root cause. He, like many
Puritans, believed the Native
Americans were devil-
worshiping sorcerers. These
sorcerers had cast a spell on
Salem so the colonists would
attack one another instead of
the Native Americans,
or so he claimed.
Cotton Mather

35. Puritan Life
For Puritans, life in this world is seen as a
test where individuals are in the midst of a
cosmic battle between God and Satan, and
the stakes are eternal bliss or damnation. If
fates are predestined, how does one know
whether she/he is “saved”? Although
individual Puritans could not know, in strict
theological terms, whether they were "saved“
and among the Elect who would go to
heaven, Puritans tended to feel that earthly
success was a sign of election. Wealth and
status were sought not only for themselves,
but as welcome reassurances of spiritual
health and promises of eternal life.
The manifestation of this belief is one of the first major characteristics that sets
Anglo-Americans apart. Furthermore, Puritans did not draw lines of distinction
between the secular and religious spheres: All of life was an expression of the
divine will.

36. Portrait of John Freake,
wealthy Boston A patriarchy in which
merchant and men were the
attorney (1674) undisputed masters of
their households would
be the best description
of family life in colonial
Massachusetts.
Feminist historians
interpret the Salem
Witch hysteria as a
power play by
otherwise powerless
young women who
exploited the
community’s fears &
family rivalries.

37. Married women in Elizabeth and Mary
Freake (1674)
colonial Massachusetts
had to know a wide range
of skilled crafts, from
brewing beer (safer to
drink than water) to making
cheese. There was no
concept of a childhood
stage of development back
then. Children were seen
as miniature, defective
adults whose wills must be
broken. Most households
had servants, who were
often adolescent children
of friends and relatives sent
away to be trained and
disciplined by those less
emotionally attached to them.
Indentured servitude was
also common.

38. Contrary to the popular notion that
the Puritans
never had any
fun:
They allowed unmarried couples to sleep together clothed (“bundling”); had high
unwed pregnancy rates (but no stigma as long as weddings followed); and
believed a woman must have an orgasm in order to conceive a child! Some
sexually dissatisfied women were able to divorce their husbands for that reason!

39. Puritan Intolerance
Back in England, Puritans had been
persecuted for their religious beliefs. In
the Massachusetts Bay theocracy
(where religious leaders were also
political leaders) Puritans became the
persecutors of others (especially
Quakers, some of whom were hanged)
as well as those among their own
number who disagreed with the colony’s
leadership.

40. Puritans & Quakers
• All good Puritans knew that Quakers
trembled & shook in their meetings &
claimed to be in touch with an ‘inner
light.’
• To Puritans, this sounded
suspiciously like possession.
• From the time of Gov. Andros’
administration onward, Puritans felt
they were being told to allow people
who might be directly in touch with
the Devil into their towns & villages!

41. Roger Williams said
that it was wrong to
knowingly take
Indian lands without
giving just
compensation, so
he was banished &
formed his own
colony, Rhode
Island.

42. Anne Hutchinson claimed that
salvation did not depend on any
church, minister, or worship
service.
She was judged an
Arminian heretic,
banished from
Massachusetts
& later killed by
Indians in New
York. John
Winthrop said of
her, “That Jezebel
got what she
Anne Hutchinson deserved.”
Actual T-shirt

43. New England’s colonial
economy was diverse,
with more than one
strength to benefit the
British Empire. Farming,
fishing, lumbering--all
were mainstays. New
England was also the
center of the slave trade in
the mainland colonies.
Slavery existed throughout
the colonies. In the South,
fewer people owned more
slaves per capita. In the
North, more people owned
fewer slaves per capita.
Slaves in the North were
more likely skilled labor.
Slave Ship

44. The Puritan Decline
Within little more than a generation of their coming to
America, Puritan clergymen had already begun lamenting the
fact that the children of the Elect--to their surprise--had not all
turned out godly; the importance of religion in daily life
had declined; people were too interested in money, trade,
commerce; and patterns of settlement had become
dispersed and de-centralized. Hard-line Calvinism was on
the wane. But, at the time of the American Revolution,
most all non-Anglican Christians here still believed in some
form of predestination--and, moreover, that the apocalyptic
event triggering both the destruction of the world and the start
of Christ’s 1000-year reign (the Millennium) was not far off.

45. Tracing the Puritan Decline in
New England’s Gravestones
New England gravestones dating from the Colonial Era through the
mid-1800s exhibit three dominant funerary motifs that changed over
time, each one giving way to the next.
Death’s Head The first was the "death's head," which
(along with the epitaph "Here lies the
body of ....") was commonly used on
graves from the early 1600s to around
1700. The "death's head" represents
the fragile mortality of humans and the
The second was the "winged awesome power of death.
cherub" or "soul effigy," which
(along with the epitaph "In memory
of ....") was dominant in the 1700s
but fell out of favor in the early
1800s. The "winged cherub"
suggests immortality and the hope
of heaven, where the soul will
spend eternity. Soul Effigy

46. Puritan Decline/Gravestones
Urn and Willow
The "winged cherub" eventually was replaced by the "urn-and-
willow" design, which became the most popular of the 19th century
(1800s). The urn contains "the remains of the deceased from which
the soul arises to heaven, and the willow symbolizes the mourning
for the earthly life and joy of the new celestial life.”

47. Witchcraft in Salem?
Among social
scientists,
actual
demonic
possession
brought on by
witchcraft has
never been a
satisfactory
explanation
for what
happened in
Salem in
1692.

48. Witchcraft was assumed to be widespread and a fundamental
fact of life in the 1600s. Virtually everyone believed in it because
witches appeared in the Bible. Many knew the signs proving
allegiance to the devil. Witch hunts broke out across Europe
with alarming
regularity and
had claimed the
lives of tens of
thousands of
women & men
by the time the
witch craze hit
Salem in the last
decade of the
century. The
Engraving from cover of book about witchcraft, 1591 Salem
Witch Hunt was the largest and last in the English colonies but
does not compare to European witch hunts in numbers of
victims.

49. • Bad economy in
Salem in 1692
Salem Village (poor
farmers), while
Salem Town
(wealthy merchants,
seaport) prospered.
• But Salem Villagers
who lived next to
busy roads also
prospered from the
commerce of Salem
Town, creating a
Salem Village between wealthier tradesmen, merchants &
their poorer farming neighbors, who believed worldliness &
affluence threatened their Puritan values. Most accused
witches lived near roads, while their accusers lived on farms.

50. Tensions became worse when
Salem Village selected
Reverend Samuel Parris as
their new minister. Parris was a
stern Puritan who denounced
the worldly ways & economic
prosperity of Salem Town as the
influence of the Devil. His
rhetoric further separated the
two factions within Salem
Village. It is not surprising that
Reverend Parris was a vigorous
supporter of the witch trials. In
fact, the alleged ‘bewitchments’
began with his West Indian
slave, Tituba; his daughters and
niece; & his impassioned
sermons inflamed the hysteria.
The Reverend Samuel Parris

51. You are an accuser! Who do you decide to accuse? Why?
What are your reasons? What do you hope to gain?
You are accused! What do you do? Confess? Plead not guilty?
Refuse to comment? Flee? Those who confessed lived!

52. Magistrates based their judgments and evaluations on various kinds of
intangible evidence, including supernatural attributes (such as "witch marks")
& reactions of the afflicted girls. Spectral evidence, based on the assumption
that the Devil could assume a person’s "specter," was relied upon despite its
controversial nature.
Examination of a Witch

53. The majority among the accused were women over 40 but it is
important to realize that men were also accused and executed.
The Trial of George Jacobs

54. Ergot as Explanation?
• In 1670 a French physician, Dr. Thuillier
put forth the concept that the condition
known as “St. Anthony’s Fire”--which had
symptoms in common with alleged
bewitchments--was not an infectious
disease, but one that was due to the
consumption of rye infected with ergot.
• In 1976 psychologist Linda Caporael
proposed that those who displayed
symptoms of bewitchment in Salem (and
surrounding areas) in 1692 were actually
suffering from ergotism, but we cannot
say for certain.

55. Ergot and Ergotism
– A disease of cereals, especially rye and
occasionally other grasses caused by the
fungus Claviceps purpurea.
• When ingested by humans or animals in sufficient
quantity, ergot (nature’s LSD) produces a disease
called “ergotism” which has in serious cases two
variants:
– 1. convulsive--characterized by nervous dysfunction,
such as writhing, tremors, and hallucinations, which in
the past were frequently reported as “convulsions” or
“fits. ”
– 2. gangrenous--victims of gangrenous ergotism may
lose fingers, toes, and limbs to dry gangrene, caused by
an alkaloid chemical produced by the ergot fungus.

56. Witchcraft and ergotism
– Symptoms of bewitchment in Massachusetts
• The victims did not have true convulsions because
they did not lose consciousness (victims of
convulsive ergotism writhe and have spasms but
do not lose consciousness.)
• 24/30 victims of bewitchment in 1692 suffered from
“fits” and the sensations of being pinched, pricked
or bitten, all of which are common symptoms of
ergotism.
• Temporary blindness, deafness, and
speechlessness, burning sensations, visions, and
the sensation flying through the air (out of body).

57. Witchcraft and ergotism
• Three girls said
they felt as if they
were being torn to
pieces & all their
bones were being
pulled out of joint.
• Some victims
reported feeling
sick to the stomach
or weak, sensing a
burning in the
fingers, swelling
and pain in half of
the right hand &
part of the face, &
being lame.

58. Witchcraft Trials End
• The trials lasted a relatively short time in 1692
• 19 people executed; 1 tortured to death.
• Dramatic impact on nation’s development & dramatic
legacy even today
• Modern witch hunts??
– McCarthyism, 2nd Red Scare (1950s)
– Alleged Child Abuse by ‘Satanic’ Cults in 1980s
– Arrest of and Anger Toward Arab-Americans after
9/11
• Why did the hunt for witches end?
– After 20 people had been executed in the Salem
witch hunt, Thomas Brattle wrote a letter criticizing
the witchcraft trials. This letter had great impact on
Governor Phips, whose wife was accused. Phips
ordered that reliance on spectral and intangible
evidence no longer be allowed in trials & dissolved
the Court investigating witchcraft accusations.