aprevision

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YMCA Awards
L2 Anatomy and Physiology for Exercise
2015

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Unit Aims:
This unit covers the knowledge required by an instructor
about basic anatomy and physiology relating to exercise
programming for apparently healthy adults of all ages.
Assessment Specification:
The unit is assessed via an externally set multiple-choice
theory paper comprising 40 questions. A minimum of 28
marks overall is required to pass (70%)
L2 Anatomy and Physiology
for Exercise

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YMCA Awards
The Skeleton
Level 2 Anatomy and Physiology for
Exercise

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Session Aims:
•  Identify and name the major bones of the human
skeleton
•  Specify the basic functions of the skeleton
•  Identify and name the structures of the Axial and
Appendicular skeleton
•  Identify the role of the spine and effects of
exercise on spine alignment
•  Describe the effects of exercise, age inactivity
and hormonal status on the skeleton

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•  206 bones in total
•  Bones are attached to other bones by ligaments
•  Bones are attached to muscles by tendons
•  Cartilage covers the end of bones at a joint and
allows friction free movement
What does the Skeletal System
consist of?

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Functions of the Skeleton
Muscle Attachment and Movement
The long bones of the skeleton act as levers. Muscles attached to
these bones and pull on them to create movement
Storage of Minerals
Minerals such as calcium and phosphate ions are stored in the bones
to be drawn upon when necessary
Protection of Vital Organs
The skeleton protects vital organs and delicate structures within the
body
Shape
The skeleton gives the body its characteristic shape and provides a
framework for support
Production
The marrow cavity of some bones, such as the sternum, is a site of
production for red and white blood cells.

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Axial
Skeleton
(80
bones)

Lies
on
the
long
axis
or
midline
of
the
body
and
includes

the
skull,
vertebrae,
sternum

and
ribs

• 
This
part
of
the
skeleton
provides
protec;on

Appendicular
Skeleton
(126
bones)

Includes
bones
of
the
shoulder
girdle,
arms
and
hands

and
the
pelvic
girdle,
legs
and
feet

• 
This
part
of
the
skeleton
provides
movement

Divisions of the Skeleton

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Axial and Appendicular Skeleton

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Vertebral Column (Spine)

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There are 33 individual bones in total:
7 Cervical vertebrae:
• 1st is called the ATLAS which supports the skull and forms a pivot with the AXIS
(2nd cervical vertebrae)
12 Thoracic vertebrae:
• Form joints with the ribs to form the ribcage
5 Lumbar vertebrae:
• The largest and strongest vertebrae
5 Sacral:
• Fused to form the sacrum
4 Coccygeal:
•  Fused to form the coccyx

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All the vertebrae join to one another to form a
flexible column that:
• Supports the trunk and head
• Encloses and protects the spinal cord
In between each vertebrae there are intervertebral
discs (fibrous cartilage) which act as shock
absorbers between each of the vertebrae

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Curves of the Spine
•  4 ‘natural’ curves named after the vertebrae
that form them:
Cervical
Thoracic
Lumbar
Sacral
•  These curves centre the head above the body
and make walking and maintaining an upright
posture more easy
Curves of the Spine

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Curves of the Spine
Genetic and lifestyle factors can cause curvature of the
spinal to become exaggerated or excessive which gives a
distorted appearance to an individuals posture
•  Fashion
•  Work/school
•  Emotional state
•  Sport
•  Hereditary
•  Injuries
•  Age
•  Pregnancy
•  Disability
•  Obesity
Exaggerated Curvatures of the Spine

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YMCA Awards
Bones
Level 2 Anatomy and Physiology
for Exercise

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Session Aims:
•  Describe the four classifications of bone
•  Understand the structure of a long bone
•  Describe the stages of bone growth
•  Describe the effects of exercise, age inactivity
and hormonal status on bones

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Bone Classifications
• Long Bones
Found in the limbs. Their length is greater than their breadth. They
have a tubular shaft and usually an epiphysis at each end covered
by hyaline cartilage
Movement
• Short Bones
Found in the hand and foot primarily. Roughly cuboid in shape
Movement / strength
• Irregular Bones
Composed of a thin shell of compact bone and an interior of
cancellous bone
Protection
• Flat Bones
Composed of thin and inner and outer layers of compact bone
separated by a layer of cancellous bone

Muscle attachment

*
Also
Sesamoid
bones
such
as
the
Patella
(knee
cap)

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Bone Growth
Bones are living and need a good blood supply in order to
bring nutrients and oxygen, and to get rid of waste products
The bone also needs nerves to send information to the brain
about pain or damage caused to a bone
Bones at birth are mainly cartilage. As the skeleton matures
calcium and magnesium are deposited within the cartilage by
osteoblasts (bone building cells). This process of bone growth
is called OSSIFICATION
Ossification is complete by the age of about 25 years
The cartilage gives the bones their resilience and calcium
gives them their hardness.

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• COMPACT BONE - forms the main shaft of the bone. 
• SPONGY BONE (cancellous bone) - is found at the ends
of the bone
•  RED MARROW - which produces red and white blood
cells is found within the cavity of the bone shaft
•  With the exception of the ends of the bone, a fibrous
sheath covers the bone, this is called PERIOSTEUM
•  Periosteum has a rich supply of blood vessels, providing
nutrients for bone cells during growth and repair.
Structure of a Long Bone

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Structure of a Long Bone

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Growing bone is vulnerable to damage
Exercise training with children therefore requires care
Research suggests exercise with young children needs to
be of moderate intensity to have a positive effect on bone
development
Resistance training with children should consist of high
reps and low resistance
Heavy/strenuous work with young children could lead to
overuse injuries and fractures of the epiphyseal plates,
which could effect growth and future bone development
Ossification
Important implications for exercise

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Bones change their size and shape during a
lifespan
Increasing age and inactivity can lead to bone
demineralisation and fragile bones (osteoporosis)
Regular weight bearing exercise will increase bone
density, making it stronger as a result of the pulling
forces exerted by the muscle on the bone
Factors Affecting Bone Growth

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This is where bones become thinner and more
fragile
Exercise does not need to be vigorous; everyday
activities such as walking are beneficial
Any weight bearing exercise program is effective
as it encourages an increase in bone density.
Bones become stronger due to the pulling forces of
the muscles on the bone. Without this action, bone
loses calcium faster than it can be replaced
Osteoporosis

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YMCA Awards
Joints
for Exercise

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Central YMCA Qualifications (CYQ)
Bones
Learning OutcomesSession Aims:
• Understand the joints of the skeleton
• Describe the classifications of joints
• Describe the structure of synovial joints
• Describe the types of synovial joints and their
range of motion
• Describe joint actions
• Understand the life-course of the musculoskeletal
system and its implications for special populations
exercise

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Joint Classifications
A joint is where a bone meets another bone
There are 3 classifications of joints:
• Immovable e.g. the skull
- Also known as fused or fibrous
• Slightly moveable e.g. the thoracic vertebrae
- Also known as cartilaginous
• Freely movable e.g. the shoulder
- Known as synovial

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Synovial Joints – Structure
• Articular cartilage
– Lines the ends of bone for smooth movement
– Shock absorption
• Joint capsule
– Sleeve-like capsule that encloses the joint cavity
• Synovial membrane
– Secretes synovial fluid into the joint
• Synovial fluid
– Lubricates the joint

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• Ligaments
– Links bone to bone and adds stability
• Tendons
– Tendons attach muscle to bone

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Gliding Joint

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Ball and Socket Joint

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Condyloid Joint

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YMCA Awards
Joint Actions
for Exercise

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Anatomical Position
When analysing joint actions the starting point
is the anatomical position

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Flexion and Extension
• Flexion – to reduce the angle at the joint or to
bend a limb
- e.g. bending the arm at the elbow
• Extension – to return from flexion, increase the
angle at the joint or to straighten the limb
- e.g. extending the arm or straightening the leg

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Flexion and Extension

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Abduction and Adduction
• Adduction – to bring towards or across the
midline of the body
- e.g. drawing the leg across the body
• Abduction – to take away from the midline of the
body
- e.g. raising the arm or leg out to the side

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Abduction and Adduction

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Rotation
•  A rotary movement inward or outward
- e.g. turning the hip in and out, or rotation of
the thoracic vertebrae

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Circumduction
• Circle movement of the body
- e.g. with the arm

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Circumduction

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Horizontal Flexion and Extension
• Horizontal flexion – a forward movement in a
horizontal plane
- e.g. drawing the arm across the body as in
a pec dec exercise
• Horizontal extension – a backward movement in
a horizontal plane
- e.g. swinging the arm away from the body
NB: Also known as horizontal shoulder adduction (flexion) and abduction
(extension)

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Horizontal Flexion and Extension

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Elevation and Depression
• Elevation – to lift or raise a joint
- e.g. lifting the shoulders
• Depression – to drop or lower a joint
- dropping down the shoulders

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Elevation and Depression

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Lateral Flexion and Extension
• Lateral flexion - to bend sideways with the truck
or neck
- e.g. standing side bends or tilting the head
• Lateral extension - to straighten from a sideways
bending movement
- e.g. returning to an upright anatomical
position after performing a side bend

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Lateral Flexion and Extension

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Pronation and Supination
• Pronation
- e.g. to turn the palm down
• Supination
- e.g. to turn the palm up
NB: The terms ‘prone’ and ‘supine’ relevant to
exercise
Prone – face down
Supine - face up

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Pronation and Supination

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Plantar Flexion and Dorsi Flexion
• Plantar Flexion - pointing the toes away from
the body
- e.g. upward movement of a standing calf raise
• Dorsi Flexion - to pull the toes towards the body
- e.g. digging the heel in the ground

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Plantar Flexion and Dorsi Flexion

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Protraction and Retraction
• Protraction - the shoulders are drawn forwards,
rounding the shoulders
•  Retraction - the shoulders are drawn back as if to
bring the shoulder blades (scapulae) as close
together as possible and push the chest forwards

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Protraction and Retraction

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YMCA Awards
for Exercise
Bones & Joints
Special Populations

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Bones and Joints - Special populations
Work on a case by case basis with individuals but bear
the following changes in mind
• Young people in the 14 – 16 age range
Growing bone not fully ossified therefore vulnerable to
damage.
Avoid heavy, very strenuous or repetitive exercise
• Pregnancy
Stability of synovial joints affected by the hormone
relaxin and altered centre of gravity.
Avoid high impact exercise and fast changes of
direction

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Bones and Joints - Special populations
• Ageing
Decreased bone density – susceptibility to fractures/
osteoporosis
Decreased synovial fluid – stiffer joints
Thinning cartilage – reduced shock absorbency
Less elastic ligaments and tendons – reduced joint
stability
Age related diseases
• Disability
Limitations will be specific to the disability

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YMCA Awards
for Exercise
Muscles and Muscle Actions

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Learning Outcomes
Session Aims:
•  Identify the three types of muscle tissue and their
characteristics
• Describe the structure of skeletal muscle
• Identify how muscles attach to the skeleton
• Name and locate the main muscles
• Describe the structure and function of the pelvic
floor muscles
• Identify joint actions by specific muscle groups

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Muscle Tissue Types
There are three types of muscle tissue:
• Voluntary
- Skeletal or striated muscle, involved in exercise
- Under conscious control
• Involuntary
- Smooth muscle, e.g. digestive tract, artery wall
-Under unconscious control
• Cardiac
- Striated and involuntary
- Specialist heart muscle
- Under unconscious control

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Muscle
Structure

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Muscle Attachments
Muscles attach to the skeleton via:
• Tendons
Muscle fascia converges to form the tendon
which attaches to the bone
•  Aponeurosis (flattened tendons) of other
muscles e.g. abdominals
• Directly onto the bone via muscle fascia

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Muscle Contractions – General Rules
•  Muscles pull
•  A muscle crosses at least one joint
•  A muscle contracts along its line of fibre
•  Muscles work in pairs

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Muscles
Muscles work in pairs:
Front & back
e.g. biceps & triceps
•  Prime mover / agonist - the muscle responsible
for bringing about the action
e.g. biceps curl – agonist = bicep
•  Antagonist - the opposite muscle that relaxes for
movement to occur
e.g. biceps curl – antagonist = tricep

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Types of Muscle Contraction
• Concentric
Muscle develops tension and shortens,
overcoming load and gravity
• Eccentric
Muscle lengthens (with tension), resisting
gravity, returning a load to the starting
position in a controlled manner
• Isometric
Static or held
• Isotonic
Moving contraction (concentric and eccentric
phases)

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Muscle Fibre Types
Skeletal muscles are made from several different
types of fibre and vary in two ways:
• Colour
• Speed of contraction

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Muscle Fibre Types
Slow
twitch
fibres

Fast
twitch
fibres

Type
l

Type
llb
Type
lla

slow
oxida;ve
fibres

fast
glycoly;c
fibres

fast
oxida;ve
glycoly;c

red
in
colour

white
in
colour

pink
in
colour

contain
large

numbers
of

mitochondria

contain
low
numbers

of
mitochondria

larger
amount
of

mitochondria
than

type
llb
fibres

endurance
type

ac;vi;es

strength
/
anaerobic

type
ac;vi;es

intermediate
fibres

assist
type1
&
typellb

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Muscle Fibre Recruitment
The nervous system controls muscular contraction
Motor units consist of a single motor nerve and all
the muscle fibres it innervates
All of the fibres in that motor will be recruited when
the stimulus is sent from the nervous system – ‘all
or none law’
More units will be recruited when more strength is
required

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Muscle Fibre Recruitment

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YMCA Awards
Muscles of the Body
for Exercise

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Anatomical Terms
Anatomical terms help you to
distinguish between different
parts of the anatomy, they also
help with learning muscle
names
The terms relate to the
anatomical position

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Muscle Origins and Insertions
There are some general rules to help you to
understand muscle origins and insertions:
• Origin: usually nearer the midline of the body or
superior
• Insertion: usually away from the midline or
inferior
There are exceptions e.g. some muscles that run
vertically reverse this rule e.g. rectus abdominis

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Muscles of
the Human
Body

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YMCA Awards
Muscles of the Upper Limb
for Exercise

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Biceps
• Origin - Scapula
• Insertion - Radius
• Joints crossed - elbow &
shoulder
• Joint action - flexes the elbow
& supinates the forearm
e.g. biceps curl

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Triceps
• Origin - scapula and humerus
• Insertion - ulna
• Joints crossed - elbow &
shoulder
• Joint action - extension of the
elbow
e.g. triceps dips

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Brachialis
• Origin - humerus
• Insertion - ulna
• Joint crossed - elbow
• Joint action - flexes elbow

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Deltoid
• Origin - clavicle and scapula
• Insertion - humerus
• Joint crossed - shoulder
• Joint action - abducts the arm,
assists in shoulder rotation &
flexion
e.g. Dumbell lateral raise

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Latisimus Dorsi
• Origin -lumbar and sacral
vertebrae, thoracic vertebrae 7
12
• Joint crossed -shoulder
• Joint action - adducts, extends
and inwardly rotates the
shoulder
e.g. Lat pulldown

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Pectoralis Major
• Origin - clavicle and sternum
• Joint crossed - shoulder
• Joint action - horizontal
flexion, adduction and inward
rotation of the arm
e.g. Press up, pec dec

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Trapezius
• Origin - C7, all thoracic
vertebrae
• Insertion - clavicle and scapula
• Joint crossed - shoulder girdle
•  3 Joint actions:
- Upper fibres extend the neck
- Middle fibres retract the scapula
- Lower fibres depress the scapula
e.g. Shoulder shrugs

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Rhomboids
• Origin - spinous processes of
cervical and thoracic vertebrae (C7
& T1–T5)
•  Insertion - medial border of scapula
• Joint crossed - shoulder girdle
(moves scapula relative to rib cage)
• Joint actions - retracts scapula
downwardly rotates scapula
(works as a synergist with
pectoralis minor)
e.g. Pulling the shoulder blades
together

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YMCA Awards
Trunk/Core Muscles
for Exercise

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Transverse Abdominis
•  Origin - iliac crest, lumbar fascia
and cartilage of interior six ribs
• Insertion - xiphoid process,
linea alba and pubis
• Joint crossed – lumbar vertebrae
• Joint action - compress the
abdomen, pulls the abdomen in
for posture and spine support
e.g. the plank

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Rectus Abdominis
• Origin - pubis
• Insertion - ribs
• Joints crossed - lumbar and
thoracic vertebrae
• Joint action - flexes the
thoracic and lumbar spine
e.g. curl ups

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Erector Spinae
• Origin - sacrum , ilium to
thorax
• Insertion - ribs, vertebrae, to
occipital bone (base of skull)
• Joints crossed - vertebrae
• Joint action - extends the
spine rotates the thoracic spine
e.g. dorsal raise, side twists

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External Obliques
• Origin - lower ribs
• Insertion - ilium
• Joints crossed – the
vertebrae
• Joint action - laterally flexes
the thoracic spine
e.g. oblique curls

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Internal Obliques
• Origin - ilium
• Insertion - lower ribs
• Joint crossed - vertebrae
• Joint action - laterally flexes
the thoracic spine, rotates
the thoracic spine
e.g. lying side bends

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YMCA Awards
Muscles of the Lower Limb
for Exercise

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Iliopsoas (Hip Flexors)
•  Origin - all lumbar vertebrae and ilium
• Insertion - femur
• Joint crossed - hip
• Joint action - flexes the hip
e.g. kicks

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Gluteals/Abductors
• Origin - ilium and sacrum
(Gluteus maximus only)
• Joint action - extends and
outwardly rotates the hip
(gluteus maximus), abducts and
inwardly rotates the hip (Gluteus
minimus and medius)
e.g. kick backs and squats
Gluteus Medius

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Adductors
• Origin - pubis and
ischium
• Joint action - adducts
and outwardly rotates the hip
e.g. kicking across the body ad
stabilising the pelvis

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Hamstrings
• Origin - ischium
• Insertion - tibia and fibula
• Joints crossed - hip and knee
• Joint action - knee flexion, hip
extension
e.g. hamstring curls

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Quadriceps
• Origin - femur and Ilium
• Insertion - tibia (via patella tendon)
• Joints crossed - knee and hip
(rectus femoris is the only
quadricep to cross both hip and
knee joints)
• Joint action - all four muscles
extend the knee, the rectus
femoris also flexes the hip
e.g. leg extension

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Gastrocnemius
• Origin - femur
• Insertion - calcaneus
• Joints crossed - ankle and
knee
• Joint action - ankle
plantarflexion, assists in knee
flexion
e.g. heel raises

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Soleus
• Origin - fibula and tibia
• Insertion - calcaneus
• Joint crossed - ankle
plantarflexion
e.g. heel raises

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Tibialis Anterior
• Origin - tibia
• Insertion – first metatarsal
• Joint crossed - ankle
dorsiflexion
e.g. heel digs

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Pelvic Floor Muscles
Situated under the pelvis
A double layered muscle consisting
of a deep and superficial layer of
muscle tissue and connective tissue
Provides stability for the pelvic girdle
Controls organs and growing foetus
in pregnancy
Controls continence

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YMCA Awards
Exercise
Special Populations
The Muscular System

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Special Populations
The Muscular System
the following changes in mind
Muscle growth does not keep up with bone growth,
leading to clumsiness, motor skills are affected
• Pregnancy
The muscular system is affected by relaxin,
muscles are less pliable. This may have and affect
on balance and coordination

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Special Populations
The Muscular System
• Ageing
Reduction in number of muscle fibre and fibre
size
Loss of contraction tissue
Reduction in motor units and neurons
Loss of power, strength and endurance
Changes in posture
Decreased motor skills, balance and coordination
Increased risk of falls

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YMCA Awards
Exercise
The Circulatory System

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Session aims:
• Identify the location of the heart
• Describe the structure and function of the heart
• Describe how blood moves through the heart
• Describe the systemic and pulmonary circulation
• Describe the structure and function of blood
vessels
• Define blood pressure classifications
• Identify blood pressure classifications

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The Heart
• Located in the chest, slightly to the left
• A pump to maintain circulation
• Two halves
- Right, deoxygenated blood
- Left, oxygenated blood
• Four chambers
- 2 upper collecting chambers – atria
- 2 lower pumping chambers – ventricles
• Valves ensure the flow is one way
• Coronary arteries supply the heart muscle with
oxygenated blood

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Arteries
• Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the
heart supplying vital organs and tissues*
- Remember ‘A’ = ‘A’way
• Thicker, muscular wall to allow blood to be
shunted around the body
• Dealing with blood under high pressure
* except for the pulmonary artery - transports
deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs

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Veins
• Veins carry deoxygenated blood back
towards the heart*
- Remember ‘Ve-in’ = ‘way in’
• Thin muscular wall
• Valves to assist blood flow back to the
heart and prevent back flow
* except for the pulmonary vein – transports
oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart

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Capillaries
• Arteries become smaller to form arterioles which
link to capillaries
• Capillaries are one cell thick to allow gaseous
exchange
• From the capillaries venules take blood into the
veins, into the Vena Cavae

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The Circulatory System

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Pulmonary and Systemic Circulation
•  The pulmonary circulation – the flow of blood
from the right side of the heart to the lungs and
then back to the left side of the heart. (Lower
pressure)
•  The systemic circulation – the flow of blood from
the left side of the heart to all parts of the body.
(Higher pressure)

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Blood Pressure
• The pressure within the arteries
• Produced by the contraction of the heart
• Measured by:
- Systolic pressure – when the heart contracts
- Diastolic pressure – when the heart relaxes
•  Regular exercise can lead to the reduction or
normalising of high blood pressure

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Blood Pressure Guidelines
• Blood pressure guidelines vary
• Source up to date and reliable guidelines, such
as NICE, BHF, ACSM or WHO

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YMCA Awards
for Exercise
The Respiratory System

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Session Aims:
• Identify the location of the lungs
• Describe the function of the lungs
• Describe the structure of the lungs
• Identify the main muscles involved in breathing
• Describe the passage of the air through the
respiratory tract
• Describe the process of gaseous exchange
• Describe the effects of age, pregnancy and
disability on the cardiovascular and respiratory
systems

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The Lungs
Located in the
thorax, protected
by the ribs

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The Air we Breathe
Normal
Air Exhaled
Air
78%
nitrogen 78%
nitrogen

21%
Oxygen 16%
Oxygen
0.04%
Carbon
dioxide
4%
Carbon
Dioxide

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Respiratory Muscles
• Diaphragm
• A dome-shaped muscle
• When it contracts, it
flattens increasing the
abdominal cavity

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Respiratory Muscles
• Internal and external obliques
• External – pull the ribs upwards
and outward
• Internal – pull the ribs
downward and inward

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The Passage of
Air

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Gaseous Exchange
• Diffusion
- The exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon
dioxide) within the lungs
- This occurs within the capillaries that
surround the alveoli in the lungs

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Gaseous Exchange

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Cardio Respiratory System
Special Populations
• Children
- Lower blood volume
- Less efficient temperature regulation
- Heart chambers are smaller so heart rate is
higher and stroke volume is lower
- Less efficient in processing oxygen

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YMCA Awards
for Exercise
The Cardio Respiratory System
Special Populations

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Special Populations
Decrease blood volume
Poor temperature regulation
Higher maximum heart rate
Lower stroke volume
Smaller heart – high uptake of O2 , limited
anaerobic ability

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Special Populations
• Pregnancy
Cardiovascular system is enhanced
Blood volume ↑
Stroke volume and cardiac output ↑
Resting heart rate ↑
Venous return ↓

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Special Populations
• Ageing
Decreased cardiac output
Reduction in VO2 max
Decreased maximum heart rate
Increased blood pressure
Reduced tolerance to lactic acid and fatigue

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Special Populations
• Ageing
- Some of the age-related changes can be as
follows:
• Cardiac output ↓
• VO2 Max ↓
• Maximum heart rate ↓
• Blood pressure ↑
• General reduction in efficiency

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Special Populations
• Disability
There are a range of medical conditions and
disabilities which can have an impact on the
function of the cardio and respiratory systems
These will be specific to each individual

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YMCA Awards
for Exercise
Energy Systems

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Session Aims:
•  Understand energy systems and their relation to
exercise
•  Describe how carbohydrates, fats and proteins are
used in the production of energy
•  Explain the use of the three energy systems
during aerobic and anaerobic respiration
•  Describe the effects of age, pregnancy and
disability on the energy systems
Learning Outcomes

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Energy
• Energy comes from the food we eat:
- Carbohydrate - stored in muscle and liver cells
in the form of glycogen
- Fat - stored as adipose tissue
- Protein - used as the building material for
growth and repair

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Energy
• Energy is released in the body by the breakdown
of carbohydrates, fat and protein to produce:
- Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
- The body’s energy ‘currency’

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The Energy Systems
• Phosphocreatine system
- Used for high intensity/short duration
activities lasting up to 15 seconds
- Anaerobic
- Energy supplied by creatine phosphate

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The Energy Systems
• Lactic acid system
- Used for moderate to high intensity/short
duration activities lasting 30 – 40 seconds
- Anaerobic
- Energy supplied by glycogen

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The Energy Systems
• Aerobic system
- Used for low to moderate intensity / longer
duration activities lasting 90 seconds or more
- Aerobic
- Energy supplied by glycogen and fat

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YMCA Awards
for Exercise
Special Populations
The Energy Systems

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The Energy Systems
Special Populations
in mind the following
Limited supply of muscle and liver glycogen
Smaller stores of fuels
High anaerobic threshold
Limited anaerobic capacity

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The Energy Systems
Special Populations
• Pregnancy
More carbohydrates than fat is used during
moderate exercise
Blood sugar levels susceptible to a sudden drop
after exercise
• Disability
Limitations will be specific to the disability

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YMCA Awards
for Exercise
The Nervous System

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Learning Outcomes
Session aims:
•  Understand the nervous system and its relation
to exercise
• Describe the role and functions of the nervous
system
• Describe the ‘all or none’ law/motor unit
recruitment
• Describe how exercise can enhance
neuromuscular connections and improve motor
fitness

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The Nervous System
• Functions
- Controls all the actions of all bodily systems
- Maintain ‘homeostasis’ the body maintaining
balance to operate effectively

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The Nervous System
• Sensory input
- To sense changes inside and outside the body
• Interpretation
- To analyse and interpret incoming information
• Motor output
- To respond to the information by activating the
relevant bodily system

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The Nervous System
• Central nervous system (CNS)
- The brain and the spinal cord
• The peripheral nervous system
- 31 pairs of nerves that branch from the CNS
- Sends messages back to the CNS
- Two branches:
• Somatic
• Autonomic
- Sympathetic
- Parasympathetic

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The Nervous Systems
Response to Training
• Strengthening/growing new connections
within the nervous system
• Speeding up the frequency of nerve impulses to
the motor units
• Improved synchronous recruitment of motor units
resulting in stronger muscle contractions

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YMCA Awards
for Exercise
Special Populations
The Nervous System

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The Nervous System and
Special Populations
Disorders of this very complex system can
affect all special populations.
There are hundreds of disabling neurological
diseases and disorders
This is very complex and requires specialist
knowledge and care

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