Applied anatomy: research prospects.....

Applied anatomy: research prospects.....

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  Applied Anatomy RESEARCH PROSPECTSIN ANATOMY Submittedto, Dr.Chandhini VK Asst Professor St.Teresas college EKM. Submittedby Ancy Varghese I MSc Botany St.Teresas College, EKM.
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  1.To identify archeologicalplant remains  A burnt wood or charcoal sample is collected from the site of excavation.  Microscopic slides are prepared and examined thoroughly.  The observation shows that the very delicate features like perforation plate and . Lateral wall pitting are still retained.  The wood anatomy of archaeological sample is compared with that of present-day- wood and thus their identity can be detected.
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   The IndusValley civilization & proto-historic period in India namely, the Bronze Age civilization of Harappa and the Copper Age civilization of Hastinapura used wood for various purposes.  Harappans used the wood of Cedrus deodara (Deodar) and Dalbergia latifolia (Rosewood) for making coffins. These durable and scented woods are still in use after thousands of years for the same purpose.  Zizyphus was used as wooden mortar for pounding grains. This wood has the property of shock absorbing and the Harappans were quite aware of the fact.  In Iron Age the species of Quercus were used in making buildings and boats. At the site of exacavation at Brigg at South Humberside a boat made up of Quercus wood was preserved.
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   All theseknowledge about the people of history was obtained by analyzing the types of wood and other plant materials they used for their daily uses.  It gives a true idea of those people’s observation and understanding of the uses of trees.  Gives idea into how civilizations were developed.  How much technologically advanced they were.  Their skill to develop tools that aid in agriculture, industry,and construction of buildings.
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  2.Applied aspects ofmeristem culture  Apical meristems occur at the tips of root, leaf and shoot.  The shoot apical meristems are particularly used in culture.  shoot apical meristem is excised out and placed in a glass container, containing nutrient.  the apical dome of shoot apex compose the meristem. In apical meristem culture the sub-millimetre shoot tip with 0.1 to 0.5 mm high apical dome is dissected out and placed in nutrient medium
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   The meristemculture of F1 plant keeps the progeny alike  In many experiments on plant breeding the hybrid plants fail to produce normal seeds. The seeds are either abortive or nonviable.  These hybrids are propagated through meristem culture.  The haploid plant produced as a result of anther or pollen culture are always sterile.  They become fertile when they are converted to homozygous diploid.
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   The haploidplants are propagated through apical meristem culture.  In apical meristems viruses are either absent or present in a very low concentration because  the cells of this region have fast mitotic activity.  By apical meristem culture a clone of virus-free plant can be obtained.  A virus-free plant is not virus resistant.
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   Micropropagation  Theessential oil citronella is obtained from the leaves of Eucalyptus citriodora tree. (Done by micropropagation)  Endangered plants are micropropagated  Apical meristem culture is widely used to raise virus-free plants.  Eg Manihot esculentes usually inflected by mosaic virus or streak virus is micropropagated for virus free saplings.
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  3.Anatomy in forensicscience
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   Forensic plantmorphology & anatomy  Forensic dendrochronology  Forensic limnology(diatoms)  Forensic palynology  Pollens and spores - excellent evidence –  high resistance to any extremeconditions  very easily transferrable between objects due to their small size.  Pollens can adhere to any type of surface and due to their different shape and size can be easily identifiedand classified. Successful identification of species of pollens would eventuallyhelp in the determinationof the place of occurrence of the crime since no two places would be having the same pollen profile.  Moreover, Forensic Palynology also helps in the determination of the fact whetherthe corpse had been moved from one place to another after death.
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  4.Applications of Anatomyin Systematics  Anatomical features can used in Taxonomy for 1. The identification of plants. 2. Establishing genetic relationships. 3. Solving taxonomic disputes Correct identification of plant is necessary for a natural & reliable classification.  Peculiarities of Anatomical characters  Anatomy of fragmentary materials can be done.  Most of the Anatomical characters are conserved.  High range of Anatomical character variability is available among plants.  Anatomical characterization can be done without sophisticated equipments.
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  a. Trichomes  Someof the epidermal cells of most plants, grow out in the form of hairs or trichomes.  A collective term of hairs & papillae.  Occur on all organs of plant.  2 major categories- glandular & non- glandular.  Each category subdivided according to their gross structure, cellular constitution, nature of branching..etc.  A particular type of hair is constant in a species.  A property used to identify members of similar families.
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  Various types oftrichomes  Non- glandular trichomes – Lauraceae,Moraceae  Stellate hairs – Malvaceae  Stinging hairs – Urticaceae  Mucilage hairs – Rumex  Silica hairs - Grasses
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   Certain speciesof Vernonia are differentiated on the basis of their trichomes.  Trichome type and their distribution are useful characters in distinguishing various genera of Fabaceae and Icacinaeae.  Presence of sessile glandular hair in both Typhaceae and Sparganiaceae (Solereder and Meyr, 1933)confirms their close affinity with each other.  Crucifera has been divided into tribes and genera mainly on the basis of types of trichomes (Schulz, 1936)  Species of Digitalis have been divided into two groups mainly on the basis of presence or absence of glandular hairs.  Trichromes in Parthenium argentatum (compositae) are T-shaped  while in P. incanum they are whiplike with a long thread.  Species in various genera of Labiatae are also separated on the basis of presence or absence of glandular hair.
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  b. Epidermis orEpidermal Cells  Some of the epidermal characters of taxonomic importance in different families and genera are,  Shape, size, outline, wall thickness, wall sculpturing and inclusions of epidermal cell  Partly or wholly crystalliferous epidermis on the cells – important because of their restricted occurrence  Epidermal cells with vertical or horizontal partition  Occlusion of stomata by an unidentified substance in winteraceae,  papillate epidermal cells in Graminae,  presence and distribution of silica bodies in cyperaceae  sclerification of the wall of the epidermal cells in some genera of compositae, and presence of very narrow epidermal cells in Stylidiaceae
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  c. Types ofStomata  Features like distribution, morphology and ontogeny of stoma are commonly used.  Stoma is absent in roots. Exceptional cases reported from Ceratonia siliqua & Pisum arvense seedling roots.  Some families are specific for their stomata, such as  Anomocytic stomata ( lack subsidiary cell) – Ranunculaceae  Anisocytic stomata ( have guard cells in between2 larger subsidiary cells and one distinctly smaller) - (Brassicaceae, Solanaceae, Crassulaceae)  Diacytic stomata ( have guard cells surrounded by 2 subsidiary cells that each encircle one) - Acanthaceae, Caryophyllaceae  Paracytic stomata (One or more pairs of lateral subsidiary cells oriented parallel with guard cells) – (Rubiaceae)  Graminaceous stomata( 2 guard cells surrounded by 2 lens shaped subsidiary cells) – Poaceae ( dumbbell shaped guard cells.  Sunken stomata – Xerophytic adaptation
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  Based on ontogeny2 types of stomata 1. Syndetochelic stomata  A type of stoma where 2 guard cells & subsidiary cells are derived from a single mother cell.  Considered as primitive.  Usually occur in Gymnosperms ( Bennettitalian leaves) 2. Haplochelic stomata  A type of stoma where 2 guard cells are derived from a single mother cell & subsidiary cells derived from a different initial.  Considered advanced.  Occurs in Angiosperms  Developmental pattern of stomata indicates the phylogeny of plant.
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   It isthe distribution type of Stomata helped in the differentiation of Eleutharrbena macrocarpa and Pycnarrbena pleniflora.
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  d. Stomatal index Percentage of the no.of stomatal cells to the total no.of stomata and epidermal cells.  I = S÷ (S+E)  I = Stomatal index, S = Stomatal cells, E = Epidermal cells.  Stomatal distribution on leaves are specific & based on it, leaves are classified into 1. Epistomatic leaf( Stomata on upper surface) eg.Nymphaea, Nelumbo, Victoria…etc (Hydrophytes) 1. Hypostomatic leaf(Stomata on lower side) eg.Dicot plants 2. Amphistomatic leaf (Stomata on both sides) eg. Monocot plants
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   About 35different types of stomata have been described from various plants & most of them can be used as taxonomic evidence
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  e. Leaf🍂Anatomy Characters oftaxonomic significance in leaf anatomy include  Gross anatomical architecture (dicot& monocot)  Structural variability like…  nature and thickness of epidermis, Stomatal crypts  Features of mesophyll , Bundle sheath  Hydathodes , Kranz anatomy  Foliar nectaries & glands, oil glands  Features of leaf abcisson  venation patterns, crystals etc.
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  Leaf 🍂 Anatomy Veins  Veins and their innumerable variations in leaf venation pattern provide various characters of taxonomic importance.  The anatomical division of Angiosperm into Dicotyledonand monocotyledonis based on venation pattern.  The different categories of vein provide many characters that are veryuseful in leaf identification.  The 1° veins may be single, three or more The 2° veins form an angle with 1°. The angles are constant in a species. The angles may be uniform, abruptly increasing towards the base, smoothly decreasing towards base etc.  The spacing between 2° veins is also of taxonomic significance
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   It maybe uniform , irregular and increasing or decreasing towards the base.  The 3° veins show different angles to 1° .The course of 3° veins may be straight, convexand sinuous .  The number of veinlets in a unit area is species- specific.  Usually four square millimetre area of a leaf is considered as a unit in counting the veinlet numbers. The ultimate free endings of vein-lets have diagnostic value.  They may be unbranched, linear or curved 1- branched, 2 or more branched etc.  The comparative structure of the veins of two leaves, and in particular the structure of the vascular bundle and their relationship to the surrounding tissues;it is important to ensure that the veins of the same order are being examined.
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   Euphorbiaceae,Cyperaceae andGramineae ofAngiosperms and Coniferae of Gymnosperms  Benson (1962) in Rananculus, Vidakouie (1957)in Pinus, Metcalfe (1968) in several genera of Cyperaceae have used several characters of leaf anatomy in differentiating special.  Patterns of distribution of sclerenchyma in Carex and Festuca - used in distinguishing species. Sclerenchyma is also used in differentiating two genera of Velloziaceaeviz. Vellozia and Barbacenia. Taxonomic implication of leaf anatomy of several genera of Musaceae, Zingiberaceae, Xanthorrhoeaceae and Ericaceae has also been established by several workers.
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  f. Nodal anatomy 3 different types of nodes based on anatomical characters 1.Unilacunar node( Node with one lacuna or leaf gap) 3 types  Single leaf trace- Nerium, Calotropis, Lantana  2 traces – Clerodendron splendens  3 traces – Withania somnifera 2.Trilacunar node (Node with 3 lacunae or leaf gaps) - Azadirachta 3.Multilacunar node (Node withmany lacunae or leaf gaps) - Rumex, Polygonum, Aralium
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  According to Paliwaland Anand (1978)  Majority of dicotyledons possess trilacunar nodes.  Unilacunar nodes are found in Laurales,Caryophyllales, Ericales, Ebenales, Primulales,Mystales and few Tubiflorae and Asteridae members.  Multilacunar nodes are found in Mangnoliales, Piperales, Trochodendrales, Umbellales and Asterales.
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  g. Petiole anatomy Thepetiole is of considerable taxonomic importance,  since its structure is little affected by environmental change.  According to Howard (1963)  families, genera and even species in some case may be identified by  petiole character such as its position on stem,  presence or absence of stipules,  vascularization, nodal structure,no.of traces ..etc
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   Petiolar vascularization has also been helpful in the classification of Rhododendson and some other genera. T.S. of  Eichhornia crassiples petiole showing the lacunate cortex & scattered vascular bundles in the partition of lacunae.
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  h. Stem anatomy Important in separating higher categories,  such as gymnosperms from angiosperms and monocots from dicots, and not common in lower levels.  Cork : position in which the cork originates in a young stem is of diagnostic value within limits.  the first cork to be formed is often more superficial . Then again,  in a single family there are species which have either deep- seated or superficial cork  in some families the origin of the cork is seems to be constant.
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   Presence ofa distinct endodermis in stems is of  Diagnostic value because of its restricted occurrence.  In most dicotyledonous stems the endodermis in inconspicuous.  In some the endodermis consists of distinct layer of 1. cells differentiated from the neighbouring cells in containing. starch. 1. consists of cells with well marked casparianthickening. 2. endodermis becomes wholly suberized. i. Endodermis
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   The occurrenceof bicollateral vascular bundle in the axis of  Cucurbitaceae is of much taxonomic value.  In certain families, e.g., Solanaceae, &  Asclepiadaceae the presence of internal phloem make a good taxonomic value.  Anomalous secondary thickening in monocots- Bignonaceae
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  j. Sclereids  Sclereidsare the cells with very thick lignified walls.  They have been used as the diagnostic tools in several taxa.  extremely rare in monocots, except in certain genera of Araceae,  Agavaceae, Arecaceae and a few other families.  In dictors, more common in woody forms than in herbaceous ones.
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  Nature ,type, distributionof scleirids and fibres  Monocot fibres – hard fibres – (coir)  Dicot fibres – soft fibres –( jute)  Asterosclereids ( star shaped) – Nymphaceae  Trichosclereids (branches hair like) – leaves of Olea  Macrosclereids (columnar cells) – seed coats of legumes  Osteosclereids(bone like) – seed coat of Pisum
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  k. Pollens &Starch grains
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  5. Anatomy inPharmacognosy  Medicinal properties of plants- Based on alkaloids present in it.  Glycosides, saponins( soap like steroids), & oils.  An alkaloid present in one plant may be absent in other.  Alkaloids have both + ve and – ve effects in various situations.  Here Taxonomy comes to aid.
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  a. To detectadulterants in crude drugs  Drug can be obtained from  all parts of a plant (ex. Swertia chirata),  leaves (ex. Adhatoda vasica, Andrographis paniculata etc.),  roots (Cephaelis ipecacuanha),  rhizome (ex. Zingiber officinale, Rauwolfia serpentina etc.), or  bark (Alstonia scholaris).
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   The medicinalplants provide the crude drug.  They are imported in dry form and in dry powdery form.  Difficult to identify the materials by macroscopic appearance only.  So, microscopical , morphological characters of drug materials are studied. They are described and published in pharmacopoeia.  The pharmacopoeias- official publications.  crude drug - also identified from its chemistry.  But the identification with the study of microscopical examination is much easier and quicker than that of chemical analysis
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  1. Swertia chirata (Family:Gentianaceae), commonly known as chirata, is an indigenous drug of India.  It is used as stomachic bitter tonic, anthelminthic and in skin diseases.  The root is used as a substitute of Centiana lutea, which is used as gastrointestinal tonic, because the root of chirata does not constipate the bowels.  The most common adulterant is Swertia angustifolia commonly known as pahari chirata. Swertia chirata Swertia angustifolia
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   Apart fromSwertia angustifolia, Enicostema littorale, roots of Rubia cordifolia and  Andrographis paniculata are found to be mixed with Swertia chirata.  Andrographis paniculata differs from Swertia chirata in having characteristic  cystolith on leaves,  diacytic type of stoma and  phloem on the dorsal side of xylem only.
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  2.Zingiber officinale  (Family:Zingiberaceae),  commonly known as ginger is rhizome drug.  The rhizome is used as carminative medicine.  used in digestive disorders. It expels gas from stomach and intestine.  dilates the blood vessels causing a warm feeling.  increases Ihe rate of perspiration and thus lowers the body temperature.  mainly used as condiment.
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   Rhizome ofZingiber officinale contains abundant starch grains.  They remain singly or in groups.  Each grain is simple and the shape may be round, oval, oblong and flattened. The hilum is small and terminal. The striations are very faint.  The common adulterant is Zingiber mioga  It has compound starch grains and thus can be differentiated.  Starch grains from wheat flower, Curcuma etc. are the other adulterants.  The study of starch grains detects them.  Adulteration may also occur with ‘spent ginger’ that is exhausted in the preparation of essence. This can be detected by chemical tests only. Zingiber officinale
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  3.Cephaelis ipecacuanha (Family: Rubiaceae) a root drug and is used in cough mixture.  The drug contains abundant starch grains that are mostly compound with 2-4 or five or up to 8 parts.  The individual granule is fairly small, not more than 15 µm in diameter. The shape of the granules may be round or oval.  The vessels are moderately thick walled with narrow lumen and numerous bordered pits on walls.  Ionidium (Family: Violaceae) and other roots are the adulterant of Cephaelis ipecacuanha.  These adulterants have wide vessels and lack the characteristic starch granules.  The other adulterant is Cephaelis acuminata that have starch granules up to 22 µm in diameter. Root of Cephaelis ipecacuanha Root of Ionidium
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  Anatomical research centres
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  Research centres JNTBGRI
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  Research prospects  Recentarticles publishedon Plant anatomy:  “Patterns of chloroplast reproduction:a developmental approach to protoplasmic plant anatomy .” - T Butterfass- 2012  “Polyploidrootstock of fruit tree: research status and prospects.” –JB Dang, G.Liang, C. Li. – 2019  “Root system engineering: Prospects &Promises” – PC Abhilash, RK Dubey – 2015  “Prospects for enhancing leaf photosyntheticcapacity by manipulating mesophyll cell morphology.” – T Ren, SM Weraduwage – 2019  “Wood of herbaceous plants: concepts of secondary xylem structure & prospects of anatomical research.” – AV Stepanova – 2016  “Flooding stress in plants: anatomical,morphological & physiological responses.” – GG Striker - 2012
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  Reference 1. Cutler,D.,Botha, C.,&Stevenson,D.(2011).Plant anatomy: An Applied Approach.Malden.Mass: Blackwell 2. nph.online library.wiley.com.The use of Anatomical characters for systematic purposes. 3. www.nou.ac.in- Anatomy in relation to Taxonomy 4. www.biology discussion.com.- Plant Anatomy applications – Dr.Sagarika Parida 5. legaldesire.com.Forensic Botany and it’s applications.Swetha.20Dec.2020 6. www.kew.org . Plant forensics : cracking criminal crimes .Kew Gardens.Katie Avis Riordan .19.Aug.2020.