1. Applied Anatomy
RESEARCH PROSPECTS IN ANATOMY
Submittedto,
Dr.Chandhini VK
Asst Professor
St.Teresas college
EKM.
Submittedby
Ancy Varghese
I MSc Botany
St.Teresas College,
EKM.
2. 1.To identify archeological plant remains
A burnt wood or charcoal sample is collected
from the site of excavation.
Microscopic slides are prepared and
examined thoroughly.
The observation shows that the very delicate
features like perforation plate and
. Lateral wall pitting are still retained.
The wood anatomy of archaeological
sample is compared with that of present-day-
wood and thus their identity can be
detected.
3. The Indus Valley civilization & proto-historic period in India namely, the
Bronze Age civilization of Harappa and the Copper Age civilization of
Hastinapura used wood for various purposes.
Harappans used the wood of Cedrus deodara (Deodar) and Dalbergia
latifolia (Rosewood) for making coffins. These durable and scented woods
are still in use after thousands of years for the same purpose.
Zizyphus was used as wooden mortar for pounding grains. This wood has the
property of shock absorbing and the Harappans were quite aware of the
fact.
In Iron Age the species of Quercus were used in making buildings and boats.
At the site of exacavation at Brigg at South Humberside a boat made up of
Quercus wood was preserved.
4. All these knowledge about the people of history
was obtained by analyzing the types of wood
and other plant materials they used for their daily
uses.
It gives a true idea of those people’s observation
and understanding of the uses of trees.
Gives idea into how civilizations were developed.
How much technologically advanced they were.
Their skill to develop tools that aid in agriculture,
industry,and construction of buildings.
5. 2.Applied aspects of meristem culture
Apical meristems occur at the tips of root,
leaf and shoot.
The shoot apical meristems are particularly
used in culture.
shoot apical meristem is excised out and
placed in a glass container, containing
nutrient.
the apical dome of shoot apex compose
the meristem. In apical meristem culture
the sub-millimetre shoot tip with 0.1 to 0.5
mm high apical dome is dissected out and
placed in nutrient medium
6. The meristem culture of F1 plant keeps the progeny alike
In many experiments on plant breeding the hybrid plants fail to
produce normal seeds. The seeds are either abortive or nonviable.
These hybrids are propagated through meristem culture.
The haploid plant produced as a result of anther or pollen culture
are always sterile.
They become fertile when they are converted to homozygous
diploid.
7. The haploid plants are propagated through apical
meristem culture.
In apical meristems viruses are either absent or
present in a very low concentration because
the cells of this region have fast mitotic activity.
By apical meristem culture a clone of virus-free plant
can be obtained.
A virus-free plant is not virus resistant.
8. Micropropagation
The essential oil citronella is obtained
from the leaves of Eucalyptus
citriodora tree. (Done by
micropropagation)
Endangered plants are
micropropagated
Apical meristem culture is widely used
to raise virus-free plants.
Eg Manihot esculentes usually
inflected by mosaic virus or streak virus
is micropropagated for virus free
saplings.
10. Forensic plant morphology & anatomy
Forensic dendrochronology
Forensic limnology(diatoms)
Forensic palynology
Pollens and spores - excellent evidence –
high resistance to any extremeconditions
very easily transferrable between objects due to their small size.
Pollens can adhere to any type of surface and due to their different shape and size can
be easily identifiedand classified. Successful identification of species of pollens would
eventuallyhelp in the determinationof the place of occurrence of the crime since no two
places would be having the same pollen profile.
Moreover, Forensic Palynology also helps in the determination of the fact whetherthe
corpse had been moved from one place to another after death.
11. 4.Applications of Anatomy in Systematics
Anatomical features can used in
Taxonomy for
1. The identification of plants.
2. Establishing genetic
relationships.
3. Solving taxonomic disputes
Correct identification of plant is
necessary for a natural &
reliable classification.
Peculiarities of Anatomical
characters
Anatomy of fragmentary materials
can be done.
Most of the Anatomical characters
are conserved.
High range of Anatomical
character variability is available
among plants.
Anatomical characterization can
be done without sophisticated
equipments.
12. a. Trichomes
Some of the epidermal cells of most plants, grow out in the
form of hairs or trichomes.
A collective term of hairs & papillae.
Occur on all organs of plant.
2 major categories- glandular & non- glandular.
Each category subdivided according to their gross structure,
cellular constitution, nature of branching..etc.
A particular type of hair is constant in a species.
A property used to identify members of similar families.
14. Certain species of Vernonia are differentiated on the basis of their
trichomes.
Trichome type and their distribution are useful characters in distinguishing
various genera of Fabaceae and Icacinaeae.
Presence of sessile glandular hair in both Typhaceae and Sparganiaceae
(Solereder and Meyr, 1933)confirms their close affinity with each other.
Crucifera has been divided into tribes and genera mainly on the basis of
types of trichomes (Schulz, 1936)
Species of Digitalis have been divided into two groups mainly on the basis
of presence or absence of glandular hairs.
Trichromes in Parthenium argentatum (compositae) are T-shaped
while in P. incanum they are whiplike with a long thread.
Species in various genera of Labiatae are also separated on the basis of
presence or absence of glandular hair.
15. b. Epidermis or Epidermal Cells
Some of the epidermal characters of taxonomic importance in different
families and genera are,
Shape, size, outline, wall thickness, wall sculpturing and inclusions of
epidermal cell
Partly or wholly crystalliferous epidermis on the cells – important because
of their restricted occurrence
Epidermal cells with vertical or horizontal partition
Occlusion of stomata by an unidentified substance in winteraceae,
papillate epidermal cells in Graminae,
presence and distribution of silica bodies in cyperaceae
sclerification of the wall of the epidermal cells in some genera of
compositae, and presence of very narrow epidermal cells in Stylidiaceae
16.
17. c. Types of Stomata
Features like distribution, morphology and ontogeny of stoma are commonly used.
Stoma is absent in roots. Exceptional cases reported from Ceratonia siliqua & Pisum arvense
seedling roots.
Some families are specific for their stomata, such as
Anomocytic stomata ( lack subsidiary cell) – Ranunculaceae
Anisocytic stomata ( have guard cells in between2 larger subsidiary cells and one distinctly
smaller) - (Brassicaceae, Solanaceae, Crassulaceae)
Diacytic stomata ( have guard cells surrounded by 2 subsidiary cells that each encircle one)
- Acanthaceae, Caryophyllaceae
Paracytic stomata (One or more pairs of lateral subsidiary cells oriented parallel with guard
cells) – (Rubiaceae)
Graminaceous stomata( 2 guard cells surrounded by 2 lens shaped subsidiary cells) –
Poaceae ( dumbbell shaped guard cells.
Sunken stomata – Xerophytic adaptation
18.
19. Based on ontogeny 2 types of stomata
1. Syndetochelic stomata
A type of stoma where 2 guard cells & subsidiary cells
are derived from a single mother cell.
Considered as primitive.
Usually occur in Gymnosperms ( Bennettitalian leaves)
2. Haplochelic stomata
A type of stoma where 2 guard cells are derived from a
single mother cell & subsidiary cells derived from a
different initial.
Considered advanced.
Occurs in Angiosperms
Developmental pattern of stomata indicates the
phylogeny of plant.
20. It is the
distribution type
of Stomata
helped in the
differentiation of
Eleutharrbena
macrocarpa
and
Pycnarrbena
pleniflora.
21. d. Stomatal index
Percentage of the no.of stomatal cells to the total no.of stomata
and epidermal cells.
I = S÷ (S+E)
I = Stomatal index, S = Stomatal cells, E = Epidermal cells.
Stomatal distribution on leaves are specific & based on it, leaves
are classified into
1. Epistomatic leaf( Stomata on upper surface) eg.Nymphaea,
Nelumbo, Victoria…etc (Hydrophytes)
1. Hypostomatic leaf(Stomata on lower side) eg.Dicot plants
2. Amphistomatic leaf (Stomata on both sides) eg. Monocot plants
22. About 35 different types of stomata have been described from
various plants & most of them can be used as taxonomic
evidence
23. e. Leaf🍂Anatomy
Characters of taxonomic significance in
leaf anatomy include
Gross anatomical architecture
(dicot& monocot)
Structural variability like…
nature and thickness of epidermis,
Stomatal crypts
Features of mesophyll , Bundle
sheath
Hydathodes , Kranz anatomy
Foliar nectaries & glands, oil glands
Features of leaf abcisson
venation patterns, crystals etc.
24. Leaf 🍂 Anatomy
Veins
Veins and their innumerable variations in leaf venation
pattern provide various characters of taxonomic
importance.
The anatomical division of Angiosperm into
Dicotyledonand monocotyledonis based on venation
pattern.
The different categories of vein provide many characters
that are veryuseful in leaf
identification.
The 1° veins may be single, three or more
The 2° veins form an angle with 1°. The angles are constant in a
species. The angles may be uniform, abruptly increasing
towards the base, smoothly decreasing towards base etc.
The spacing between 2° veins is also of taxonomic
significance
25. It may be uniform , irregular and increasing or
decreasing towards the base.
The 3° veins show different angles to 1° .The course
of 3° veins may be straight, convexand sinuous .
The number of veinlets in a unit area is species-
specific.
Usually four square millimetre area of a leaf is
considered as a unit in counting the veinlet
numbers. The ultimate free endings of vein-lets have
diagnostic value.
They may be unbranched, linear or curved 1-
branched, 2 or more branched etc.
The comparative structure of the veins of two leaves,
and in particular the structure of the vascular bundle
and their relationship to the surrounding tissues;it is
important to ensure that the veins of the same order
are being examined.
26.
27.
28. Euphorbiaceae,Cyperaceae and Gramineae ofAngiosperms and Coniferae
of Gymnosperms
Benson (1962) in Rananculus, Vidakouie (1957)in Pinus, Metcalfe (1968) in
several genera of
Cyperaceae have used several characters of leaf anatomy in differentiating
special.
Patterns of distribution of sclerenchyma in Carex and Festuca - used in
distinguishing species. Sclerenchyma is also used in differentiating two genera
of Velloziaceaeviz. Vellozia and Barbacenia.
Taxonomic implication of leaf anatomy of several genera of Musaceae,
Zingiberaceae,
Xanthorrhoeaceae and Ericaceae has also been established by several
workers.
29. f. Nodal anatomy
3 different types of nodes based on anatomical
characters
1.Unilacunar node( Node with one lacuna or leaf gap)
3 types
Single leaf trace- Nerium, Calotropis, Lantana
2 traces – Clerodendron splendens
3 traces – Withania somnifera
2.Trilacunar node (Node with 3 lacunae or leaf gaps)
- Azadirachta
3.Multilacunar node (Node withmany lacunae or leaf
gaps)
- Rumex, Polygonum, Aralium
30. According to Paliwal and Anand (1978)
Majority of dicotyledons possess
trilacunar nodes.
Unilacunar nodes are found in
Laurales,Caryophyllales, Ericales,
Ebenales, Primulales,Mystales and few
Tubiflorae and Asteridae members.
Multilacunar nodes are found in
Mangnoliales, Piperales,
Trochodendrales, Umbellales and
Asterales.
31. g. Petiole anatomy
The petiole is of considerable taxonomic
importance,
since its structure is little affected by
environmental change.
According to Howard (1963)
families, genera and even species in
some case may be identified by
petiole character such as its position
on stem,
presence or absence of stipules,
vascularization, nodal structure,no.of
traces ..etc
32. Petiolar vascularization
has also been helpful in the
classification of
Rhododendson and some
other genera. T.S. of
Eichhornia crassiples petiole
showing the lacunate cortex
& scattered vascular bundles
in the partition of lacunae.
33. h. Stem anatomy
Important in separating higher categories,
such as gymnosperms from angiosperms and monocots from
dicots, and not common in lower levels.
Cork : position in which the cork originates in a young stem is of
diagnostic value within limits.
the first cork to be formed is often more superficial . Then again,
in a single family there are species which have either deep-
seated or superficial cork
in some families the origin of the cork is seems to be constant.
34. Presence of a distinct endodermis in stems is of
Diagnostic value because of its restricted
occurrence.
In most dicotyledonous stems the endodermis in
inconspicuous.
In some the endodermis consists of distinct layer of
1. cells differentiated from the neighbouring cells in
containing.
starch.
1. consists of cells with well marked
casparianthickening.
2. endodermis becomes wholly suberized.
i. Endodermis
35. The occurrence of bicollateral
vascular bundle in the axis of
Cucurbitaceae is of much
taxonomic value.
In certain families, e.g., Solanaceae,
&
Asclepiadaceae the presence of
internal phloem
make a good taxonomic value.
Anomalous secondary thickening in
monocots- Bignonaceae
36. j. Sclereids
Sclereids are the cells with very thick
lignified walls.
They have been used as the
diagnostic tools in several taxa.
extremely rare in monocots, except in
certain genera of Araceae,
Agavaceae, Arecaceae and a few
other families.
In dictors, more common in woody
forms than in herbaceous ones.
37. Nature ,type, distribution of scleirids and fibres
Monocot fibres – hard fibres – (coir)
Dicot fibres – soft fibres –( jute)
Asterosclereids ( star shaped) – Nymphaceae
Trichosclereids (branches hair like) – leaves of
Olea
Macrosclereids (columnar cells) – seed coats of
legumes
Osteosclereids(bone like) – seed coat of Pisum
39. 5. Anatomy in Pharmacognosy
Medicinal properties of plants- Based on
alkaloids present in it.
Glycosides, saponins( soap like steroids), & oils.
An alkaloid present in one plant may be absent
in other.
Alkaloids have both + ve and – ve effects in
various situations.
Here Taxonomy comes to aid.
40. a. To detect adulterants in crude drugs
Drug can be obtained from
all parts of a plant (ex. Swertia
chirata),
leaves (ex. Adhatoda vasica,
Andrographis paniculata etc.),
roots (Cephaelis ipecacuanha),
rhizome (ex. Zingiber officinale,
Rauwolfia serpentina etc.), or
bark (Alstonia scholaris).
41. The medicinal plants provide the crude drug.
They are imported in dry form and in dry powdery form.
Difficult to identify the materials by macroscopic appearance
only.
So, microscopical , morphological characters of drug
materials are studied. They are described and published in
pharmacopoeia.
The pharmacopoeias- official publications.
crude drug - also identified from its chemistry.
But the identification with the study of microscopical
examination is much easier and quicker than that of chemical
analysis
42. 1. Swertia chirata
(Family: Gentianaceae),
commonly known as chirata,
is an indigenous drug of India.
It is used as stomachic bitter tonic,
anthelminthic and in skin diseases.
The root is used as a substitute of
Centiana lutea, which is used as
gastrointestinal tonic, because the
root of chirata does not constipate
the bowels.
The most common adulterant is
Swertia angustifolia commonly known
as pahari chirata.
Swertia chirata
Swertia angustifolia
43. Apart from Swertia angustifolia, Enicostema
littorale, roots of Rubia cordifolia and
Andrographis paniculata are found to be
mixed with Swertia chirata.
Andrographis paniculata differs from Swertia
chirata in having characteristic
cystolith on leaves,
diacytic type of stoma and
phloem on the dorsal side of xylem only.
44. 2.Zingiber officinale
(Family: Zingiberaceae),
commonly known as ginger is rhizome drug.
The rhizome is used as carminative medicine.
used in digestive disorders. It expels gas from stomach
and intestine.
dilates the blood vessels causing a warm feeling.
increases Ihe rate of perspiration and thus lowers the
body temperature.
mainly used as condiment.
45. Rhizome of Zingiber officinale contains
abundant starch grains.
They remain singly or in groups.
Each grain is simple and the shape may be
round, oval, oblong and flattened. The hilum is
small and terminal. The striations are very faint.
The common adulterant is Zingiber mioga
It has compound starch grains and thus can be
differentiated.
Starch grains from wheat flower, Curcuma etc.
are the other adulterants.
The study of starch grains detects them.
Adulteration may also occur with ‘spent ginger’
that is exhausted in the preparation of essence.
This can be detected by chemical tests only.
Zingiber officinale
46. 3.Cephaelis ipecacuanha
(Family: Rubiaceae)
a root drug and is used in cough mixture.
The drug contains abundant starch grains that are
mostly compound with 2-4 or five or up to 8 parts.
The individual granule is fairly small, not more than 15
µm in diameter. The shape of the granules may be
round or oval.
The vessels are moderately thick walled with narrow
lumen and numerous bordered pits on walls.
Ionidium (Family: Violaceae) and other roots are the
adulterant of Cephaelis ipecacuanha.
These adulterants have wide vessels and lack the
characteristic starch granules.
The other adulterant is Cephaelis acuminata that have
starch granules up to 22 µm in diameter.
Root of Cephaelis ipecacuanha
Root of Ionidium
