Application of Statistical and mathematical equations in Chemistry Part 6
Strong Acid and Base Titrations, Weak Acid and Strong Base Titration, Strong Acid and Weak Base Titrations ,Precipitation
Percentage calculation
This document provides a test paper containing one mark and two mark questions related to concepts in solutions and colligative properties:
1. The one mark questions cover calculating normality of H2SO4, when Vant Hoff's factor is greater than one, how freezing point and boiling point depression relate to solute molecular mass, moles of NaCl in a solution, and Van't Hoff's factor for non-electrolytes.
2. The two mark questions involve calculating freezing point depression of a non-electrolyte solution, amount of urea that will separate from a cooled solution, molar mass from a boiling point elevation experiment, and boiling point of an NaCl solution and molarity and
Liquid-Vapor Equilibria in Binary SystemsKarnav Rana
1) The document discusses liquid-vapor equilibria in binary systems, specifically measuring the compositions of chloroform and acetone mixtures using refractometry.
2) It introduces concepts like Raoult's law and Henry's law to describe ideal and non-ideal behavior in binary solutions, and how vapor pressure varies with composition.
3) Temperature-composition diagrams are used to visualize ideal and non-ideal behavior, including positive and negative deviations from ideality and the possibility of azeotropes.
CHM023L - B06 Final Report Group 3 Experiment 3 (Chemical Equilibrium: Le Cha...Chino Chino
This document describes the results of 5 experiments on chemical equilibriums. In Experiment 1, adding KSCN or FeCl3 shifted the iron complex ion equilibrium forward by making the solution darker red. Adding heat shifted it backward and making it lighter, indicating the reaction is exothermic. Experiment 2 examined the chromate/dichromate ion equilibrium, finding that acid and base addition shifted the equilibrium in opposite directions. Experiment 3 showed that adding ammonia or acid shifted the copper complex ion equilibrium left or right, respectively. Experiment 4 showed that adding water to a saturated NaCl solution shifted the equilibrium left. Experiment 5 showed that adding ions shifted the ammonium hydroxide or acetic acid equilibriums left.
This document provides instructions and background information for an experiment on calculating reaction rates. It includes:
- A list of 5 factors that affect the rate of reaction and an explanation of how one of the factors affects the chance of collisions or successful collisions.
- An explanation that increasing the concentration of sodium thiosulfate increases the rate of reaction because there are more particles closer together, leading to more collisions.
- Instructions to complete three out of five experimental methods and record results by sketching graphs.
- Background definitions of "rate of reaction" and how to calculate the rate.
- A sample experiment measuring carbon dioxide production from the reaction of calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid over time.
The document analyzes deviations from ideality in a methanol-water solution through measurements of heat of mixing, volume of mixing, and partial pressures of mixing. The heat of mixing was exothermic and deviations increased near a 1:1 ratio. Volume upon mixing did not equal the sum of individual volumes. Partial pressures deviated from ideality due to increased vaporization from exothermic mixing. Modifications varying temperature and substituting isopropanol showed more ideal behavior at higher temperatures and with isopropanol.
This document discusses stoichiometry and chemical reactions. It defines stoichiometry as the calculation of reactants and products in chemical reactions based on the law of conservation of mass. It explains how to identify the limiting reagent, which is the first reagent to be completely used up in a chemical reaction. Excess reagents remain after the limiting reagent is used up. The document provides examples of how to use balanced chemical equations and mole ratios to perform stoichiometric calculations converting between moles, mass, and particles of reactants and products.
Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by a gas in equilibrium with its solid or liquid form in a closed container at a given temperature. Raoult's law states that the partial vapor pressure of each component in an ideal liquid mixture is equal to the vapor pressure of the pure component multiplied by its mole fraction in the mixture. Mathematically, the partial vapor pressure of a component (Pi) is equal to the vapor pressure of the pure component (Pi*) multiplied by its mole fraction (xi) in the mixture. Raoult's law can be represented graphically, with the total vapor pressure shown as a function of mole fraction and the partial pressures of each component.
This document outlines key concepts from a chemistry textbook chapter on molecules, moles, and chemical equations. It discusses characteristics of explosive chemical reactions, balancing chemical equations, and interpreting equations in terms of moles and molecules. Key quantities like moles, molar mass, and Avogadro's number are explained. Methods for determining empirical and molecular formulas from elemental analysis are also presented. Example problems demonstrate calculations involving these concepts.
This document provides a test paper containing one mark and two mark questions related to concepts in solutions and colligative properties:
1. The one mark questions cover calculating normality of H2SO4, when Vant Hoff's factor is greater than one, how freezing point and boiling point depression relate to solute molecular mass, moles of NaCl in a solution, and Van't Hoff's factor for non-electrolytes.
2. The two mark questions involve calculating freezing point depression of a non-electrolyte solution, amount of urea that will separate from a cooled solution, molar mass from a boiling point elevation experiment, and boiling point of an NaCl solution and molarity and
Liquid-Vapor Equilibria in Binary SystemsKarnav Rana
1) The document discusses liquid-vapor equilibria in binary systems, specifically measuring the compositions of chloroform and acetone mixtures using refractometry.
2) It introduces concepts like Raoult's law and Henry's law to describe ideal and non-ideal behavior in binary solutions, and how vapor pressure varies with composition.
3) Temperature-composition diagrams are used to visualize ideal and non-ideal behavior, including positive and negative deviations from ideality and the possibility of azeotropes.
CHM023L - B06 Final Report Group 3 Experiment 3 (Chemical Equilibrium: Le Cha...Chino Chino
This document describes the results of 5 experiments on chemical equilibriums. In Experiment 1, adding KSCN or FeCl3 shifted the iron complex ion equilibrium forward by making the solution darker red. Adding heat shifted it backward and making it lighter, indicating the reaction is exothermic. Experiment 2 examined the chromate/dichromate ion equilibrium, finding that acid and base addition shifted the equilibrium in opposite directions. Experiment 3 showed that adding ammonia or acid shifted the copper complex ion equilibrium left or right, respectively. Experiment 4 showed that adding water to a saturated NaCl solution shifted the equilibrium left. Experiment 5 showed that adding ions shifted the ammonium hydroxide or acetic acid equilibriums left.
This document provides instructions and background information for an experiment on calculating reaction rates. It includes:
- A list of 5 factors that affect the rate of reaction and an explanation of how one of the factors affects the chance of collisions or successful collisions.
- An explanation that increasing the concentration of sodium thiosulfate increases the rate of reaction because there are more particles closer together, leading to more collisions.
- Instructions to complete three out of five experimental methods and record results by sketching graphs.
- Background definitions of "rate of reaction" and how to calculate the rate.
- A sample experiment measuring carbon dioxide production from the reaction of calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid over time.
The document analyzes deviations from ideality in a methanol-water solution through measurements of heat of mixing, volume of mixing, and partial pressures of mixing. The heat of mixing was exothermic and deviations increased near a 1:1 ratio. Volume upon mixing did not equal the sum of individual volumes. Partial pressures deviated from ideality due to increased vaporization from exothermic mixing. Modifications varying temperature and substituting isopropanol showed more ideal behavior at higher temperatures and with isopropanol.
This document discusses stoichiometry and chemical reactions. It defines stoichiometry as the calculation of reactants and products in chemical reactions based on the law of conservation of mass. It explains how to identify the limiting reagent, which is the first reagent to be completely used up in a chemical reaction. Excess reagents remain after the limiting reagent is used up. The document provides examples of how to use balanced chemical equations and mole ratios to perform stoichiometric calculations converting between moles, mass, and particles of reactants and products.
Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by a gas in equilibrium with its solid or liquid form in a closed container at a given temperature. Raoult's law states that the partial vapor pressure of each component in an ideal liquid mixture is equal to the vapor pressure of the pure component multiplied by its mole fraction in the mixture. Mathematically, the partial vapor pressure of a component (Pi) is equal to the vapor pressure of the pure component (Pi*) multiplied by its mole fraction (xi) in the mixture. Raoult's law can be represented graphically, with the total vapor pressure shown as a function of mole fraction and the partial pressures of each component.
This document outlines key concepts from a chemistry textbook chapter on molecules, moles, and chemical equations. It discusses characteristics of explosive chemical reactions, balancing chemical equations, and interpreting equations in terms of moles and molecules. Key quantities like moles, molar mass, and Avogadro's number are explained. Methods for determining empirical and molecular formulas from elemental analysis are also presented. Example problems demonstrate calculations involving these concepts.
RAOULT'S LAW ( Physical & Analytical Chemistry)Hasnaın Sheıkh
Name; Hasnain Nawaz
Surname : Shaikh
ROLL NO: 16 CH 42
B.E: Chemical Engineering (In Progress).
Mehran University of Engineering and Technology
Jamshore, ISO 9001 Certified.
The document provides an overview of titration including terminology, basic concepts, and types of titrations. It defines titration as a quantitative analytical method to determine an analyte by reacting it with a titrant of known concentration. The key aspects covered are:
- Titration relies on a chemical reaction between the analyte and titrant, with the equivalence point determined.
- Common titration types include direct titration to determine the analyte directly, titer determination to find the accurate titrant concentration, and back titration where the analyte reacts indirectly.
- Calculations use the titrant volume, concentration, and titer along with constants to find the analyte amount or concentration in a sample
Ideal solution and non ideal solution Saloni Goyal
This document discusses ideal gases, Raoult's law, ideal solutions, and deviations from Raoult's law. It explains that an ideal gas is composed of randomly moving particles that only interact during elastic collisions. Raoult's law describes ideal solutions. Non-ideal solutions show either positive or negative deviations from Raoult's law due to differences in intermolecular forces between solvent-solute and pure components. Positive deviations occur when these interactions are weaker, while negative deviations occur when they are stronger.
The University of Greenwich is offering a free chemistry practical session on thermometric titration of a strong acid on March 28th from 12:30-3:00 PM. Students will determine the concentration of hydrochloric acid by titrating it with sodium hydroxide and recording the temperature changes. They will draw a graph of temperature vs. volume of acid added and use it to find the endpoint and calculate the concentration of the strong acid. Proper safety procedures will be followed when handling the corrosive acids and bases.
The document discusses Chapter 5 of a chemistry textbook on gases. It covers the physical properties of gases, air pollution, gas laws including Boyle's law, Charles' law, Avogadro's law, and the ideal gas law. It also discusses partial pressures in gas mixtures, stoichiometry of gas reactions, and the kinetic molecular theory of gases. Several example problems demonstrate using the gas laws and ideal gas equation to solve problems involving gases.
Stoichiometry is the quantitative study of chemical reactions and their mole-based ratios. It allows one to calculate amounts of substances involved in reactions based on molar masses, moles, and balanced chemical equations. Key concepts include empirical and molecular formulas, molarity, dilution calculations, spectrophotometry using Beer's Law, colorimetry, and determining limiting reactants.
Water makes up 65-70% of the human body. It has unique properties like high melting and boiling points due to hydrogen bonding between water molecules. The bent shape of water molecules gives them a partial positive and negative charge, allowing them to form hydrogen bonds with other water molecules. These bonds contribute to water's high heat capacity and heat of vaporization. Water's pH measures the concentration of hydronium ions, with values below 7 indicating acidity and above 7 indicating alkalinity. pH is important in biological and chemical systems and can be measured using indicators, meters, and the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation.
The document discusses reaction rates and factors that affect them. It defines reaction rate as how quickly reactants disappear to form products. Five main factors that affect reaction rates are outlined: (1) chemical nature of reactants, (2) surface area, (3) reactant concentration, (4) temperature, and (5) presence of a catalyst. Reaction rates can be quantified using rate laws and rate constants. The order of a reaction is determined experimentally and indicated by the exponents in the rate law equation.
This document discusses chemical formulas and reactions. It explains that chemical formulas use symbols to represent elements and subscripts to show the number of each element. Empirical formulas show the simplest whole number ratio of elements, while molecular formulas show the actual number of atoms. Percent composition is used to determine the mass of each element in a compound as a percentage of the total mass. Examples are provided for calculating empirical and molecular formulas based on the percent composition or molar mass of elements in compounds.
Abraham model correlations for ionic liquid solvents computational methodolog...Bihan Jiang
The document describes a computational methodology for updating existing Abraham model ion-specific equation coefficients using new experimental solubility and partition coefficient data for ionic liquid solvents. Specifically, it illustrates updating the coefficients for the trifluoroacetate anion based on 51 data points from three ionic liquid solvents containing that anion. The updated coefficients have significantly smaller standard errors and are able to better predict solubility and partition behavior in the three ionic liquids based on the increased data. The methodology allows coefficients to be refined as new data becomes available without needing to re-regress the entire Abraham model data set.
2- States of matter & phase equilibria - part 2 (Physical Pharmacy)Rawa M. Ahmed
This document discusses phase equilibria and phase diagrams. It begins by defining key concepts like phases, intensive variables, and the phase rule. It then examines systems with one, two, and three components and the possible phase diagrams. For single component systems, it describes the typical temperature-pressure phase diagram and key points like the triple point. For two-component systems, it discusses liquid-liquid mixtures and solid-liquid eutectic mixtures. It finishes by briefly discussing ternary systems and how the number of degrees of freedom changes with additional components and phases present.
This document provides an overview of stoichiometric calculations and concepts used in analytical chemistry. It discusses atomic and molecular weights, moles, molarity, normality, and other concentration units. Examples are provided to illustrate calculations for determining moles, mass, volume, and concentration in various scenarios, including dilutions and titrations. Key aspects covered include the mole concept, molarity, normality, equivalents, and requirements for volumetric titrations such as a defined reaction, rapid reaction, and a clear endpoint.
The document describes an experiment involving potentiometric titration and determination of acid dissociation constants. Key steps included:
1) Calibrating a pH meter in buffer solutions and measuring the pH of hair conditioners.
2) Titrating acetic acid with sodium hydroxide while monitoring pH.
3) Constructing a titration curve and identifying the endpoint using the first derivative.
4) Calculating the acid dissociation constant of acetic acid and obtaining 11.43% relative error.
This document describes procedures for potentiometric titration experiments involving aspirin, vinegar, and sodium carbonate samples. Potentiometric titration uses a pH electrode and reference electrode connected to a pH meter to monitor pH changes during titration. For the aspirin experiment, an aspirin tablet is dissolved and titrated with sodium hydroxide while pH is recorded. The vinegar experiment involves titrating a vinegar sample with hydrochloric acid. For sodium carbonate, the sample produces two equivalence points when titrated with hydrochloric acid due to its carbonate ions. Data analysis involves calculating percent composition and errors from the titration curves and derivative plots.
The document discusses several gas laws:
- Boyle's law states that at constant temperature, the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure.
- Charles' law states that at constant pressure, the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its kelvin temperature.
- Combined gas law allows calculation of gas properties when temperature and/or pressure change.
It also discusses concepts like the kinetic molecular theory of gases and how real gases deviate from ideal gas behavior due to intermolecular forces and molecular size. Sample calculations demonstrate use of the gas laws and kinetic theory.
Volumetric Analysis
Types of titration
Acid- Base Theory
Reaction, End Point & Indicators
Acid- Base titration
Titration curve
Non- Aqueous Titration
Precipitation Titration
Complexometric Titration
Oxidation- Reduction Titration,
Calculation. Errors
General Informations,
This document discusses pH and hydronium ion concentration in aqueous systems. It covers how pH is involved in hospital pharmacy parenteral admixture programs. pH values outside of certain limits can cause physical or chemical incompatibilities and adverse effects in patients. pH is measured using a standardized pH meter, pH indicator paper, or calculation. The document also discusses acid-base theories like Bronsted-Lowry and Arrhenius, and principles of pH, protolysis, autoprotolysis, amphoteric substances, and the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation. Examples are given for calculating pH using the Hendersen-Hasselbalch equation and determining buffer capacity.
This document summarizes key concepts related to chemical equilibrium:
1. Equilibrium can be disturbed by changes in pressure, concentration, or temperature, shifting the equilibrium position per Le Châtelier's principle.
2. Reactions go to completion when a gas is produced or an insoluble precipitate forms, removing reactants from solution.
3. The common-ion effect describes how adding an ion common to two solutes reduces ionization or causes precipitation to relieve stress on the equilibrium.
Volumetric analysis, also known as titrimetric analysis, is a quantitative chemical analysis technique where the concentration of an unknown substance is determined by reacting it with a known primary standard solution. There are different types of volumetric analysis including acid-base titration, redox titration, and complexometric titration. The procedure involves carefully measuring the volume of a solution of known concentration, called the titrant, required to completely react with a specific amount of the unknown analyte. This allows the concentration of the analyte to be calculated. Buffers are often used to maintain a stable pH during titrations.
This document discusses volumetric analysis and redox titration methods. It provides definitions of key terms like concentration, solutions, percentage compositions, and titration. It describes different types of titration including neutralization, non-aqueous, and redox titration. Neutralization titration can involve strong acid/strong base, weak acid/strong base, or weak acid/weak base reactions. Indicators are used to detect the endpoint of titrations. Redox titration involves oxidation-reduction reactions, and iodine is commonly used as an oxidizing agent in direct redox titrations.
Volumetric Analysis ( Titrimetric analysis) or TitrationAman Kakne
Volumetric analysis, also known as titrimetric analysis, is a quantitative analysis technique that determines the concentration of an unknown substance by titrating it with a solution of known concentration. The key steps are: (1) adding a known volume of the titrant of known concentration to the titrate of unknown concentration until the endpoint is reached, as indicated by a pH indicator; (2) recording the titrant volume used; and (3) calculating the concentration of the titrate based on the reaction stoichiometry and volumes added. Common types of titrations include acid-base titrations, redox titrations, and precipitation titrations. Proper indicator selection based on the relative acid/base strengths is
RAOULT'S LAW ( Physical & Analytical Chemistry)Hasnaın Sheıkh
Name; Hasnain Nawaz
Surname : Shaikh
ROLL NO: 16 CH 42
B.E: Chemical Engineering (In Progress).
Mehran University of Engineering and Technology
Jamshore, ISO 9001 Certified.
The document provides an overview of titration including terminology, basic concepts, and types of titrations. It defines titration as a quantitative analytical method to determine an analyte by reacting it with a titrant of known concentration. The key aspects covered are:
- Titration relies on a chemical reaction between the analyte and titrant, with the equivalence point determined.
- Common titration types include direct titration to determine the analyte directly, titer determination to find the accurate titrant concentration, and back titration where the analyte reacts indirectly.
- Calculations use the titrant volume, concentration, and titer along with constants to find the analyte amount or concentration in a sample
Ideal solution and non ideal solution Saloni Goyal
This document discusses ideal gases, Raoult's law, ideal solutions, and deviations from Raoult's law. It explains that an ideal gas is composed of randomly moving particles that only interact during elastic collisions. Raoult's law describes ideal solutions. Non-ideal solutions show either positive or negative deviations from Raoult's law due to differences in intermolecular forces between solvent-solute and pure components. Positive deviations occur when these interactions are weaker, while negative deviations occur when they are stronger.
The University of Greenwich is offering a free chemistry practical session on thermometric titration of a strong acid on March 28th from 12:30-3:00 PM. Students will determine the concentration of hydrochloric acid by titrating it with sodium hydroxide and recording the temperature changes. They will draw a graph of temperature vs. volume of acid added and use it to find the endpoint and calculate the concentration of the strong acid. Proper safety procedures will be followed when handling the corrosive acids and bases.
The document discusses Chapter 5 of a chemistry textbook on gases. It covers the physical properties of gases, air pollution, gas laws including Boyle's law, Charles' law, Avogadro's law, and the ideal gas law. It also discusses partial pressures in gas mixtures, stoichiometry of gas reactions, and the kinetic molecular theory of gases. Several example problems demonstrate using the gas laws and ideal gas equation to solve problems involving gases.
Stoichiometry is the quantitative study of chemical reactions and their mole-based ratios. It allows one to calculate amounts of substances involved in reactions based on molar masses, moles, and balanced chemical equations. Key concepts include empirical and molecular formulas, molarity, dilution calculations, spectrophotometry using Beer's Law, colorimetry, and determining limiting reactants.
Water makes up 65-70% of the human body. It has unique properties like high melting and boiling points due to hydrogen bonding between water molecules. The bent shape of water molecules gives them a partial positive and negative charge, allowing them to form hydrogen bonds with other water molecules. These bonds contribute to water's high heat capacity and heat of vaporization. Water's pH measures the concentration of hydronium ions, with values below 7 indicating acidity and above 7 indicating alkalinity. pH is important in biological and chemical systems and can be measured using indicators, meters, and the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation.
The document discusses reaction rates and factors that affect them. It defines reaction rate as how quickly reactants disappear to form products. Five main factors that affect reaction rates are outlined: (1) chemical nature of reactants, (2) surface area, (3) reactant concentration, (4) temperature, and (5) presence of a catalyst. Reaction rates can be quantified using rate laws and rate constants. The order of a reaction is determined experimentally and indicated by the exponents in the rate law equation.
This document discusses chemical formulas and reactions. It explains that chemical formulas use symbols to represent elements and subscripts to show the number of each element. Empirical formulas show the simplest whole number ratio of elements, while molecular formulas show the actual number of atoms. Percent composition is used to determine the mass of each element in a compound as a percentage of the total mass. Examples are provided for calculating empirical and molecular formulas based on the percent composition or molar mass of elements in compounds.
Abraham model correlations for ionic liquid solvents computational methodolog...Bihan Jiang
The document describes a computational methodology for updating existing Abraham model ion-specific equation coefficients using new experimental solubility and partition coefficient data for ionic liquid solvents. Specifically, it illustrates updating the coefficients for the trifluoroacetate anion based on 51 data points from three ionic liquid solvents containing that anion. The updated coefficients have significantly smaller standard errors and are able to better predict solubility and partition behavior in the three ionic liquids based on the increased data. The methodology allows coefficients to be refined as new data becomes available without needing to re-regress the entire Abraham model data set.
2- States of matter & phase equilibria - part 2 (Physical Pharmacy)Rawa M. Ahmed
This document discusses phase equilibria and phase diagrams. It begins by defining key concepts like phases, intensive variables, and the phase rule. It then examines systems with one, two, and three components and the possible phase diagrams. For single component systems, it describes the typical temperature-pressure phase diagram and key points like the triple point. For two-component systems, it discusses liquid-liquid mixtures and solid-liquid eutectic mixtures. It finishes by briefly discussing ternary systems and how the number of degrees of freedom changes with additional components and phases present.
This document provides an overview of stoichiometric calculations and concepts used in analytical chemistry. It discusses atomic and molecular weights, moles, molarity, normality, and other concentration units. Examples are provided to illustrate calculations for determining moles, mass, volume, and concentration in various scenarios, including dilutions and titrations. Key aspects covered include the mole concept, molarity, normality, equivalents, and requirements for volumetric titrations such as a defined reaction, rapid reaction, and a clear endpoint.
The document describes an experiment involving potentiometric titration and determination of acid dissociation constants. Key steps included:
1) Calibrating a pH meter in buffer solutions and measuring the pH of hair conditioners.
2) Titrating acetic acid with sodium hydroxide while monitoring pH.
3) Constructing a titration curve and identifying the endpoint using the first derivative.
4) Calculating the acid dissociation constant of acetic acid and obtaining 11.43% relative error.
This document describes procedures for potentiometric titration experiments involving aspirin, vinegar, and sodium carbonate samples. Potentiometric titration uses a pH electrode and reference electrode connected to a pH meter to monitor pH changes during titration. For the aspirin experiment, an aspirin tablet is dissolved and titrated with sodium hydroxide while pH is recorded. The vinegar experiment involves titrating a vinegar sample with hydrochloric acid. For sodium carbonate, the sample produces two equivalence points when titrated with hydrochloric acid due to its carbonate ions. Data analysis involves calculating percent composition and errors from the titration curves and derivative plots.
The document discusses several gas laws:
- Boyle's law states that at constant temperature, the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure.
- Charles' law states that at constant pressure, the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its kelvin temperature.
- Combined gas law allows calculation of gas properties when temperature and/or pressure change.
It also discusses concepts like the kinetic molecular theory of gases and how real gases deviate from ideal gas behavior due to intermolecular forces and molecular size. Sample calculations demonstrate use of the gas laws and kinetic theory.
Volumetric Analysis
Types of titration
Acid- Base Theory
Reaction, End Point & Indicators
Acid- Base titration
Titration curve
Non- Aqueous Titration
Precipitation Titration
Complexometric Titration
Oxidation- Reduction Titration,
Calculation. Errors
General Informations,
This document discusses pH and hydronium ion concentration in aqueous systems. It covers how pH is involved in hospital pharmacy parenteral admixture programs. pH values outside of certain limits can cause physical or chemical incompatibilities and adverse effects in patients. pH is measured using a standardized pH meter, pH indicator paper, or calculation. The document also discusses acid-base theories like Bronsted-Lowry and Arrhenius, and principles of pH, protolysis, autoprotolysis, amphoteric substances, and the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation. Examples are given for calculating pH using the Hendersen-Hasselbalch equation and determining buffer capacity.
This document summarizes key concepts related to chemical equilibrium:
1. Equilibrium can be disturbed by changes in pressure, concentration, or temperature, shifting the equilibrium position per Le Châtelier's principle.
2. Reactions go to completion when a gas is produced or an insoluble precipitate forms, removing reactants from solution.
3. The common-ion effect describes how adding an ion common to two solutes reduces ionization or causes precipitation to relieve stress on the equilibrium.
Volumetric analysis, also known as titrimetric analysis, is a quantitative chemical analysis technique where the concentration of an unknown substance is determined by reacting it with a known primary standard solution. There are different types of volumetric analysis including acid-base titration, redox titration, and complexometric titration. The procedure involves carefully measuring the volume of a solution of known concentration, called the titrant, required to completely react with a specific amount of the unknown analyte. This allows the concentration of the analyte to be calculated. Buffers are often used to maintain a stable pH during titrations.
This document discusses volumetric analysis and redox titration methods. It provides definitions of key terms like concentration, solutions, percentage compositions, and titration. It describes different types of titration including neutralization, non-aqueous, and redox titration. Neutralization titration can involve strong acid/strong base, weak acid/strong base, or weak acid/weak base reactions. Indicators are used to detect the endpoint of titrations. Redox titration involves oxidation-reduction reactions, and iodine is commonly used as an oxidizing agent in direct redox titrations.
Volumetric Analysis ( Titrimetric analysis) or TitrationAman Kakne
Volumetric analysis, also known as titrimetric analysis, is a quantitative analysis technique that determines the concentration of an unknown substance by titrating it with a solution of known concentration. The key steps are: (1) adding a known volume of the titrant of known concentration to the titrate of unknown concentration until the endpoint is reached, as indicated by a pH indicator; (2) recording the titrant volume used; and (3) calculating the concentration of the titrate based on the reaction stoichiometry and volumes added. Common types of titrations include acid-base titrations, redox titrations, and precipitation titrations. Proper indicator selection based on the relative acid/base strengths is
This document provides an introduction to analytical methods used in pharmaceutical analysis. It discusses various classical analytical methods like titrimetric methods including acid-base titrations, precipitation titrations, complexometric titrations and instrumental methods. It also summarizes different types of analytical techniques classified as classical methods, separation methods, spectroscopic methods, electrochemical methods and thermal methods. Specific techniques discussed in detail include acid-base titrations, indicators used in titrations, and types of complexometric titrations. The document provides an overview of key concepts and methods in pharmaceutical analytical chemistry.
This document provides an overview of acid-base chemistry concepts including:
1) Definitions of acids, bases, conjugate acid-base pairs, and amphiprotic species.
2) Explanations of acid and base dissociation constants and their relationships.
3) Descriptions of common ion and buffer effects.
4) Derivations of the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation for calculating pH in buffer solutions.
1) The document discusses volumetric analysis, which is a quantitative chemical analysis method that involves titration. It is defined as determining the concentration of an unknown solution by titrating a known volume of it with a solution of known concentration.
2) Key terms in volumetric analysis are discussed, including titration, titrant, equivalence point, indicator, end point, and titration error.
3) Requirements for volumetric analysis are that the reaction must be complete, stoichiometric, relatively fast, and have a detectable physical or chemical change at the equivalence point that can be identified using an indicator.
This document provides information on volumetric analysis, specifically volumetric titration. It begins by defining volumetric analysis as a quantitative chemical analysis method that involves measuring the volumes of reacting substances. A titration procedure is described where a solution of known concentration is added from a burette to a solution containing an unknown concentration of analyte until the equivalence point is reached. The summary discusses the key components of titration including the titrant, titrand, and indicator used to detect the endpoint. Common types of titrations like acid-base, precipitation, and complexometric titrations are also mentioned.
Determination of acidity in porous aluminosilicateJanardhan Hl
This document reviews several methods for determining the acidity of porous aluminosilicates like zeolites. It discusses theories of acid-base behavior and the sources of acidity in zeolite frameworks. Common techniques described include aqueous titration methods, amine titration using acidity indicators, and temperature programmed desorption of bases. Each method has limitations in fully characterizing the strength and number of surface acid sites on these solid acids. An ideal single standard method has yet to be agreed upon.
1) A mathematical titration model is constructed to determine the concentration of an unknown acid through acid-base titration.
2) The model relates the volume of base added to the pH of the solution based on chemical equations describing acid-base reactions and acid dissociation.
3) Using the model and experimental data, the dissociation constant, theoretical concentration, and actual concentration of the unknown acid are calculated, with the actual concentration found to be 0.044465437 M.
The document discusses acids and bases according to different definitions. The Arrhenius definition defines acids as substances that increase the concentration of hydronium ions and bases as substances that increase the concentration of hydroxide ions in a solution. The Brønsted-Lowry definition is broader, defining acids as substances that donate protons and bases as substances that accept protons. Amphoteric substances can act as both acids and bases, while amphiprotic substances are acids and bases according to the Brønsted-Lowry definition. The document also discusses acid-base reactions, the pH scale, and titrations.
The document discusses various concepts related to aqueous equilibria including:
1) The common ion effect where adding a strong electrolyte containing a common ion with a weak electrolyte decreases the ionization of the weak electrolyte.
2) Buffers and how they resist pH changes through reactions of the weak acid/base with added strong acid or base.
3) Solubility products (Ksp) and how solubility is affected by factors like common ions, pH, and complex ion formation.
This document provides an overview of acid-base titration including definitions, concepts, and procedures. It discusses the Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, and Lewis definitions of acids and bases. It explains the process of ionization and factors that influence it such as relative permittivity. Key aspects of acid-base titration covered include types of reactions that can occur, use of indicators, and standards. The document also discusses acid and base ionization constants and how they relate to strength. Examples are provided to illustrate acid strength calculations and indicator color changes corresponding to pH.
This document discusses acidimetry and alkalimetry, which involve the titration of acids and bases respectively using standard solutions. It covers the concentration units used for standard solutions like molarity, normality and equivalent weight. Molarity expresses moles of solute per liter of solution, normality expresses equivalents of solute per liter, and equivalent weight depends on the reaction stoichiometry. The document provides equations to relate these units and calculate concentrations. Titration reactions involve the neutralization of hydrogen or hydroxide ions.
This document provides an overview of acid-base titration and summarizes the key steps and considerations when performing a titration. It discusses selecting an appropriate indicator based on the relative strengths of the acid and base, performing multiple titrations to determine the endpoint accurately, and calculating pH at different points during the titration, including the initial pH, pH before and at the equivalence point, and pH after the equivalence point. Formulas are provided for calculating pH at these different stages of a titration, whether it involves a strong acid-strong base, strong acid-weak base, or weak acid-strong base reaction.
Volumetric Analysis
Titration Basics
Reaction, End point & Indicators
Types of Titrations
Acid – Base Theory & Principles
Acid Base titration
Non- Aqueous Titration
Precipitation Titration
Complexometric Titration
Oxidation- Reduction Titration
Calculation
General Information
Errors
This document discusses several physico-chemical properties of drug molecules that are important for drug formulation and delivery, including physical state, melting point, boiling point, polarity, and solubility. It also covers acid-base properties of drugs and how pH and pKa values are used to characterize these properties. Buffers are described as solutions that can maintain a relatively constant pH when acids or bases are added.
Similar to Application of Statistical and mathematical equations in Chemistry -Part 6 (20)
Three new heteroleptic dithiocarbamate complexes with formula [M(Phen-dione)(Fcdtc)]PF6 (where M ¼
Ni(II) Ni-Fc, Cu(II) Cu-Fc) and [Co(Phen-dione)(Fcdtc)2]PF6 (Co-Fc) (Fcdtc ¼ N-ethanol-Nmethylferrocene
dithiocarbamate and Phen-dione ¼ 1,10-phenanthroline-5,6-dione; PF6
− ¼
hexafluorophosphate) were synthesized and characterized using microanalysis
Crystal Structure, Topological and Hirshfeld Surface Analysis of a Zn(II) Zwi...Awad Albalwi
Abstract: A mononuclear Zn(II) complex of (Zn(H2L) (CH3OH) Cl2
) (1) has been synthesized by using
a nonlinear optically active Zwitterionic Schiff base which is 4-((2-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzylidene)
amino) benzoic acid (H2L). Complex 1 has been structurally analyzed by FTIR and UV spectroscopy,
TGA, Powder-XRD and single crystal X-ray diffraction. X-Ray crystallographic studies revealed Zn(II)
complex crystallizes in a P21/c space group and exists in a distorted trigonal bipyramidal geometry
(τ = 0.68).
This document appears to be a research paper that analyzed pottery shards from an ancient town in Saudi Arabia called Dedan. It describes the methodology used to conduct chemical analysis of elements in the pottery shards. The results of this analysis are presented in tables and figures that identify the concentrations of various elements found in 37 pottery samples. The paper also includes maps showing the location of Dedan and photographs of artifacts found at the site.
What evidence is there for water on mars 2009Awad Albalwi
Historical background and definition.
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Application of Statistical and mathematical equations in Chemistry -Part 6Awad Albalwi
Application of Statistical and mathematical equations in Chemistry Part 6
Strong Acid and Base Titrations .Weak Acid and Strong Base Titration ,Strong Acid and Weak Base Titrations ,Precipitation
Percentage calculation
Application of Statistical and mathematical equations in Chemistry -Part 5Awad Albalwi
Application of Statistical and mathematical equations in Chemistry
Part 5
Strong Acids and Bases
Ph theory
Weak Acids and Weak Bases
Salts of Weak Acids and Bases theory
A buffer solution theory
POLYPROTIC ACID IONIZATION
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End-to-end pipeline agility - Berlin Buzzwords 2024Lars Albertsson
We describe how we achieve high change agility in data engineering by eliminating the fear of breaking downstream data pipelines through end-to-end pipeline testing, and by using schema metaprogramming to safely eliminate boilerplate involved in changes that affect whole pipelines.
A quick poll on agility in changing pipelines from end to end indicated a huge span in capabilities. For the question "How long time does it take for all downstream pipelines to be adapted to an upstream change," the median response was 6 months, but some respondents could do it in less than a day. When quantitative data engineering differences between the best and worst are measured, the span is often 100x-1000x, sometimes even more.
A long time ago, we suffered at Spotify from fear of changing pipelines due to not knowing what the impact might be downstream. We made plans for a technical solution to test pipelines end-to-end to mitigate that fear, but the effort failed for cultural reasons. We eventually solved this challenge, but in a different context. In this presentation we will describe how we test full pipelines effectively by manipulating workflow orchestration, which enables us to make changes in pipelines without fear of breaking downstream.
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State of Artificial intelligence Report 2023kuntobimo2016
Artificial intelligence (AI) is a multidisciplinary field of science and engineering whose goal is to create intelligent machines.
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Global Situational Awareness of A.I. and where its headedvikram sood
You can see the future first in San Francisco.
Over the past year, the talk of the town has shifted from $10 billion compute clusters to $100 billion clusters to trillion-dollar clusters. Every six months another zero is added to the boardroom plans. Behind the scenes, there’s a fierce scramble to secure every power contract still available for the rest of the decade, every voltage transformer that can possibly be procured. American big business is gearing up to pour trillions of dollars into a long-unseen mobilization of American industrial might. By the end of the decade, American electricity production will have grown tens of percent; from the shale fields of Pennsylvania to the solar farms of Nevada, hundreds of millions of GPUs will hum.
The AGI race has begun. We are building machines that can think and reason. By 2025/26, these machines will outpace college graduates. By the end of the decade, they will be smarter than you or I; we will have superintelligence, in the true sense of the word. Along the way, national security forces not seen in half a century will be un-leashed, and before long, The Project will be on. If we’re lucky, we’ll be in an all-out race with the CCP; if we’re unlucky, an all-out war.
Everyone is now talking about AI, but few have the faintest glimmer of what is about to hit them. Nvidia analysts still think 2024 might be close to the peak. Mainstream pundits are stuck on the wilful blindness of “it’s just predicting the next word”. They see only hype and business-as-usual; at most they entertain another internet-scale technological change.
Before long, the world will wake up. But right now, there are perhaps a few hundred people, most of them in San Francisco and the AI labs, that have situational awareness. Through whatever peculiar forces of fate, I have found myself amongst them. A few years ago, these people were derided as crazy—but they trusted the trendlines, which allowed them to correctly predict the AI advances of the past few years. Whether these people are also right about the next few years remains to be seen. But these are very smart people—the smartest people I have ever met—and they are the ones building this technology. Perhaps they will be an odd footnote in history, or perhaps they will go down in history like Szilard and Oppenheimer and Teller. If they are seeing the future even close to correctly, we are in for a wild ride.
Let me tell you what we see.
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Strong Acid and Base Titrations
Titration of a strong acid with a strong base is the simplest of the four types of
titrations as it involves a strong acid and strong base that completely dissociate in
water, thereby resulting in a strong acid-strong base neutralization reaction. This
titration requires the use of a buret to dispense a strong base into a container of
strong acid, or vice-versa, in order to determine the equivalence point.
Weak Acid and Strong Base Titration
When solving a titration problem with a weak acid and a strong base there are certain
values that you want to attain. These include the initial pH, the pH after adding a small
amount of base, the pH at the half-neutralization, the pH at the equivalence point, and
finally the pH after adding excess base. This data will give sufficient information about
the titration. Below is an example of this process
Figure 2: The titration of a weak acid with strong base. Figure is used with the
permission of J.A. Freyre under the Creative Commons Attributions-Share Alike 2.5
Generic
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Strong Acid and Weak Base Titrations
A strong acid will react with a weak base to form an acidic (pH < 7) solution.
For example, the reaction between an ammonia solution (a weak base) and
hydrochloric acid (a strong acid) in the aqueous phase can be written as follows:
The acid can be titrated into the base, or the base can be titrated into the acid. Small
amounts of whichever solution is placed in the burette (this solution is called the
titrant) are added (titrated) into the receiver, and, if pH measurements can be
obtained via electrode, a graph of pH vs. volume of titrant can be made.
Precipitation is the formation of a solid in a solution or inside another solid during
a chemical reaction or by diffusion in a solid. When the reaction occurs in a liquid
solution, the solid formed is called the precipitate. The chemical that causes the solid
to form is called the precipitant
n solids, precipitation occurs if the concentration of one solid is above the solubility
limit in the host solid, due to e.g. rapid quenching or ion implantation, and the
temperature is high enough that diffusion can lead to segregation into precipitates.
Precipitation in solids is routinely used to synthesize nanoclusters
Percentage calculation
Gravimetric methods of analysis are based on the measurement of mass. The
two gravimetric methods are precipitation methods and volatilization
methods. In precipitation methods the analyte is converted to an insoluble
product, filtered, washed and heated. The mass of the resulting residue is
determined. In volatilization methods the analyte is heated and the analyte or
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its decomposition product is collected. The resulting loss of mass is
determined.
General form for calculations
The calculations for gravimetric analyses are fairly straight-forward.
Gravimetric calculations are based on the fundamental stoichiometric
calculations. (Note: You may wish to review these calculations before
continuing.) The basic form of the calculation is:
The gravimetric factor (GF) comes from a combination of the mole ratios and
the formula weights used in the stoichiometric calculation.
For example, if you were looking for SO3 and your precipitate was BaSO4, the
gravimetric factor would be:
The numbers, 80.064 and 233.391, are the formula weights of
SO3 andBaSO4, respectively.
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The main question is how to determine the mole ratio without knowing the
entire reaction. This is actually quite easy. Simply balance the common
element. Most of the time oxygen is not considered. In the above
example, sulfur appears in both terms.
There is only one sulfur in each term and the sulfurs are balanced. In other
words, the mole ratio is 1.
Consider the following GF:
The common element is silver, Ag.
However, there are two silver atoms represented in the upper term and only
one in the lower term.
To "balance" the silver atoms, a 2 is placed in front of the substance in the lower
term.