This document provides an overview of the U.S. Congress, including its structure, leadership roles, election processes, and key powers and responsibilities. It discusses the differences between the House of Representatives and the Senate, the role of congressional committees, and the process for how a bill becomes a law.

1. The U.S. Congress
AP UNIT 3

2. U.S. Congress Basics
The chief policymaking institution of our gov’t
535 members total (435 in House of Representatives, 100 in
Senate)
1 term of Congress = 2 years
Year 1 = 1st Session, Year 2= 2nd Session
Ex: we are in 116th Congress, 2nd Session
Salary: $174,000/year
Meets on Capitol Hill, Washington, D.C. in the Capitol Building

3. U.S. House of
Representatives

4. U.S. Senate

14. Congressional Districts (House
ONLY)
Members of the House each represent
a congressional district (section) of their
state
Senate does NOT have districts
(senators represent their whole state)
435 members of House = 435 districts
across U.S.

15. Plurality
Plurality – having more votes than an opponent but less than a
majority (over half)
Ex: Candidate A – 48% of vote (has plurality, NOT majority -
*WINS*)
Candidate B – 42% of vote
Candidate C – 6% of vote
Candidate D – 4% of vote
Single-member plurality system (SMP) - the candidate who gets
more votes than opponent(s) wins; you don’t need a majority vote to
win
Encourages two-party system (third parties generally cannot
compete to get more votes than main parties)

16. Congressional districts are reassigned and redrawn every 10
years (after the census)
Based on state population (more population = more
districts=more representatives in the House)
Every state guaranteed at least one rep
Each district must have about the same population (around
710,000 people)
reapportionment - the reassigning of congressional
districts/seats to a state every 10 years (number can change)
redistricting - the redrawing of districts’ shapes to reflect
reapportioned districts/seats

17. States can lose or gain districts/seats depending
on population changes
ex: many people move out of state, state loses
districts/seats after next census
Affects a state’s influence in Congress and its # of
electoral votes (thus, influence in an election)

20. VA has 11 districts (and so has 11 representatives in the
House of Representatives, 1 rep. per district)
 Chesterfield County spans both District 4 and District 7
VA was order to redraw its districts in 2016

21. Gerrymandering
state legislatures are responsible for drawing congressional
districts (party in power uses this to their advantage for an entire
decade)
gerrymandering - manipulating the drawing of congressional
districts to benefit a particular political party or group
basically, politicians choosing their voters instead of voters
choosing their politicians
If more voters of your party live in district = more likely your party
will win that district and a seat in House
Districts must be as compact as possible (solid areas, not spread
out) and contiguous (in one piece)

24. Methods of
Gerrymandering
packing - technique where voters of one party are packed
into one district (so they can only win one district, while the
other party wins the rest)
cracking - technique where voters of one party are spread
out to prevent them from getting a majority in any district
(other party gets majority in as many districts as possible)

25. kidnapping - drawing an incumbent out of their old
district to prevent their reelection (so they lose their
voting base)
hijacking - forcing two incumbents of the same party
into one district to fight for one seat
racial gerrymandering - drawing districts to keep
minority populations from having a majority in any
district (so whites have majority)

31. Baker v. Carr (1962)
Charles Baker sued Secretary of State of TN Joe
Carr because TN had not reapportioned/redrawn
its districts since 1901, despite TN law. Baker said
changes in population to cities made elections
unfair under such old districting.
Importance of the Case:
SC ruled they had power to rule over legislative
apportionment and could intervene when states
violated constitutional principles.

32. Congressional Elections
incumbents - politicians currently in office
have a greater advantage of getting re-elected than
challengers (incumbents usually win)
House incumbents have better chance of keeping
seats than Senate incumbents (it’s easier to get a
district to vote for you again than an entire state)

33. Advantages of Incumbency
1.) Advertising/Visibility
voters get to know their elected representatives (incumbents
have an established “brand”)
incumbents make frequent trips back home to visit
constituents (the people they represent) and gain visibility
franking privilege – official congressional mail sent to
constituents that is paid for by taxpayers
incumbents use previous voting data and contacts to gain
advantages in elections

34. 2.) Credit Claiming
incumbents actively serve people in their state/district
and build up their record
casework - intervention/services members of
Congress provide their individual constituents
Ex: need help with questions about gov’t, filling out
gov’t forms, receiving owed benefits, communicating
problems to federal agencies, etc.

35. pork barrel spending- government projects
or grants that directly benefit a
Congressperson’s district or state
Often used to build support for reelection
in a constituency (more pork = possibly
more popular?)

36. 3.) Position Taking
incumbents can point to their voting record and positions
on issues while in office
4.) Opponent Weakness
challengers are usually weaker than incumbents (don’t
have experience, record, funding, etc.)
5.) Campaign Funding
incumbents have established donors and PACs = steady
source of income (challengers do not)
More money spent = more advertising = more visibility=
more likely to get elected

37. U.S. Representative
Donald McEachin
(VA-04)
Senator
Mark Warner
(VA)
Senator
Tim Kaine
(VA)
U.S. Representative
Abigail Spanberger
(VA-07)

38. Key Differences Between
the U.S. House and Senate
HOUSE
Closer to the people (easily
influenced by individual
citizens)
435 members, “lower”
chamber (less prestigious)
2 year term
Requirements: 25 years
old, 7 years a citizen,
resident of state and district
SENATE
Farther away from people
(not as easily influenced by
individual citizens)
100 members, “upper”
chamber (more prestigious)
6 year term
Requirements: 30 years
old, 9 years a citizen,
resident of state

39. represents less people
(district only)
More formal rules, time
limits on debate and
amendments, stronger
leadership, more
organized
More focused on
budget, specialized
topics
Represents more people
(whole state)
Less formal rules, no
time limits on debate*,
weaker leadership, less
organized
More focused on foreign
policy, general topics
HOUSE SENATE

40. bills of revenue (raising
money) must start in House
only House passes articles
of impeachment (accusation)
has Rules Committee
cannot filibuster
elected directly by people
Individual reps have less
influence
 approves presidential appointments,
treaties
 holds impeachment trial, can convict
official
 does not have Rules Committee
 can filibuster
 Originally elected by state
legislatures (17th Amendment –
then Senate elected directly by
people)
 Individual senators have more
SENATEHOUSE

41. Party Control in Congress
The House and Senate are each controlled by the
political party that has the most seats in the chamber
Party with over half the seats = majority party
Party with less than half the seats = minority party
The majority party holds the top leadership positions in
Congress, controls and has more members on
congressional committees, and essentially directs the
legislative process in the chamber
Today (2020)  House controlled by Democrats, Senate
controlled by GOP

42. Leadership in the House
**Speaker of the House**
Highest leadership position in House and most powerful
position in all of Congress
Member of majority party, 2nd in line to presidency after VP
Presides over House in session, assigns bills to committees,
assigns committee positions, influences which bills are
debated, and leads their party in the House
 Currently Nancy Pelosi (D-CA) ---->

43. House Majority Leader
floor leader of the majority party,
assistant to Speaker
schedules bills on House calendar
and strategizes/coordinates majority
party actions and legislation on the
floor
Currently Steny Hoyer (D-MD) --->

44. House Minority Leader
Highest leadership position
of minority party in House,
floor leader for minority
Strategizes/coordinates
minority party actions and
legislation on the floor
Currently Kevin McCarthy
(R-CA) ----->

45. House Majority Whip
Works as a “messenger” between
party leaders (Speaker, Majority
Leader) and rest of party
Makes sure party members are
present to vote, influence
undecided votes, keeps party in
line
Currently James Clyburn (D-SC)
---->

46. House Minority Whip
(same as majority
whip, only for minority
party)
Currently Steve
Scalise (R-LA) ------>

47. President of the
Senate
highest leadership position in
Senate held by Vice-President
acts as President of Senate (but
rarely present)
cannot debate or vote unless to
break tie
NOT a member of the Senate
Currently Mike Pence ----->

48. President Pro Tempore
Serves in the absence of the Vice-
President
3rd in line to presidency after the
Speaker
Usually one of the most senior
members of Senate and member
of majority party
Currently Chuck Grassley (R-IA)
---->

49. Senate Majority Leader
Floor leader of the majority
party in the Senate
Schedules bills for debate on
floor, strategizes/coordinates
majority party actions and
legislation on the floor
Currently Mitch McConnell (R-
KY) --->

50. Senate Minority Leader
Floor leader for the
minority party in the
Senate
Strategizes/coordinates
minority party actions and
legislation on the floor
Currently Chuck Schumer
(D-NY) ----->

51. Senate Majority Whip
(same role as House
majority whip)
Currently John Thune
(R-SD) --->

52. Senate Minority Whip
(same role as House
minority whip)
Currently Dick Durbin
(D-IL) ---->

53. Key Powers of Congress
Makes laws for the country
Lays and collects taxes
Spends, borrows, and coins/regulates value of money; pays debts
(can deny funding for gov’t projects/agencies/departments) 
*ALL MONEY POWERS BELONG TO CONGRESS*
Regulates commerce (international trade and trade between the
states)
Declares war
Overrides presidential vetoes (by 2/3 vote in both chambers)
Approves presidential appointments and treaties (Senate only)

54. U.S. v. Lopez (1995)
Alfonzo Lopez carried a concealed weapon into his
high school and was later charged with violating a
federal criminal statute, the Gun-Free School Zones
Act of 1990.
Importance of the Case:
SC found the Gun-Free School Zones Act of 1990
unconstitutional because it was not in Congress’s
jurisdiction to make laws about state gun-free
zones (was NOT an area of commerce for Congress
to use their Commerce Clause powers)

55. Impeaches (accuses), convicts, and removes federal
officials (president, federal judges, etc.)
Creates all courts (below the Supreme Court), creates
post offices, and raises and maintains an army and navy
Involved in amending the Constitution (2/3 vote in both
chambers)
Involved in approving petitions and constitutions for
statehood
Regulates copyright and patent laws

56. Chooses the next president in case of no one getting
a majority of the electoral vote (House only)
Provides for the punishment for counterfeiting, piracy,
felonies at sea, etc.
Makes all laws necessary and proper for carrying out
their Constitutional powers (implied powers –
Necessary and Proper Clause)

57. Committees in Congress
Most work in Congress is done in
committees (“Congressional group
work”)
Hold hearings, read/edit/rewrite/vote
on bills, guide legislation and
agendas

58. Types of Committees
standing committee - permanent; reviews bills having to
do with the committee’s specialized policy area
select committee - most are temporary; formed to
investigate issues
joint committee - permanent; based on a few policy
areas; have members of both House and Senate
conference committee – (type of joint committee); formed
as needed; when House and Senate pass two different
versions of a bill, this committee must make ONE
compromise bill; has members of both House and Senate

59. Committees and Members
Reps serve on about 1-2 com. and up to 4 subcom.;
Senators on about 3-4 com. and up to 7 subcom.
Majority party has more members on most committees
than minority party
Committee chairman is member of majority party
(highest rank on committee)
Ranking member - highest rank of minority party on
committee (“assistant chairman”)

60. Congressional Oversight
Congressional (legislative) oversight - the power of
Congress to monitor and investigate the executive
branch’s (and its agencies’) implementation of laws;
serves as a check and increases government
transparency
Legislative veto – a resolution by Congress that
overrides rules/regulations made by an executive
agency to enforce a law (has been declared
unconstitutional)

61. How a Bill Becomes a Law
bill - a legally drafted proposal for a law
116th Congress introduced 16,601 pieces of legislation; only
287 were enacted into law (1.7%)
1.) Introduced and numbered in one chamber of Congress (H.R. #
if it’s a House bill, S. # if it’s a Senate bill)
2.) Sent to appropriate standing committee (ex: *tax bills are sent
to the Ways and Means committee*)
3.) Committee usually sends to subcommittee for
research/consideration, then sent back up

62. Committee Votes
do pass - the bill is passed/agreed to
refuse to report - the bill is ignored and dies
report as amended - the bill is passed with
edits
report committee bill - committee has written
a replacement bill

63. 5.) sent to Rules Committee (House ONLY) -
puts the bill on the calendar, sets up time limits for
debate, rules for amending bill, etc. (MOST
POWERFUL STANDING COMMITTEE)
6.) debated on the floor of the chamber
(amendments added here) and voted on
7.) If passed, sent to opposite chamber for same
process all over again

64. Bills are usually changed by one or both
chambers = two versions of one bill
Bill must be sent to conference committee to
make one version of the bill for both chambers
to approve
Finally sent to president for approval

65. A Bill and the President
President can:
Sign bill into law
Veto (reject) bill
Put bill aside for 10 days; if Congress is still in session
during that time, it automatically becomes law
pocket veto - Put bill aside for 10 days; if Congress
adjourns their session during that time, bill automatically
dies

66. Models of Congressional
Voting
1.) trustee - voting according to their personal beliefs
and conscience
2.) delegate - voting according to the desires of their
constituents
3.) partisan - voting according to their political party’s
stance on an issue
4.) politico - trying to balance more than one model of
voting

67. Congressional Staff
Members of Congress and committees have
staff that aid in drafting legislation, research and
scheduling hearings/meetings
Congressional staff members also handle
casework and communications with
constituents

68. Congressional Staff Agencies
Congressional Research Service (CRS) –
agency of the Library of Congress; provides
nonpartisan information for congressional
research purposes
Government Accountability Office (GAO) –
nonpartisan agency that works for Congress and
monitors how gov’t spends taxpayer money 
is the congressional “watchdog” on gov’t
spending

69. Congressional Budget Office (CBO) -
nonpartisan agency that analyzes president’s
budget, congressional spending, and
projects economic performance (including
effects of taxing and spending)

70. Other Legislative Terms
logrolling - vote-trading between members of Congress; one
member promises to vote on another’s legislation if the other
votes on his/hers (or one important to them)
germaneness - subjects must pertain to the topic at hand
(usually a bill in this case)
All amendments must be germane in House
Amendments in Senate do not have to be germane (a few
exceptions)

71. hold - when a senator asks party leadership to
postpone action on a bill (Senate ONLY)
rider - an amendment/measure added to a bill
that has nothing to do with the bill
(nongermane) but will be passed if the bill is
passed
-usually unpopular and wouldn’t pass if it was
a bill on its own

72. unanimous consent agreement - used by Senate majority
and minority leaders to set rules and limits on the debate of a
bill (in place of Rules Committee); Senate ONLY
senatorial courtesy - when the President seeks the consent of
Senators of a state from which his appointee comes from
Ex: President appoints judge from NY; President seeks
approval of NY senators

73. filibuster - prolonged speech on the Senate floor by a
member who wishes to block passage or voting on a
bill (to “talk a bill to death”) until it is changed or
dropped; Senate ONLY
cloture - rule voted on by at least 60 senators that
ends a filibuster/limits debate; caps action/debate on
bill to 30 hours max

74. authorization bill - a bill that creates, continues, or
changes a program and describes how it will be run
and paid for
appropriations bill - a bill that officially funds an
authorization bill or sets aside money for a specific
purpose
ONLY CONGRESS has the Constitutional power to
appropriate (set aside for use) funds for government
spending

75. Discharge petition- motion filed by a
House member to “discharge” a committee
from further consideration of a bill, and thus
force the bill out of committee and to the
floor for consideration by the whole House

76. Signing statement – a written statement by the
President expressing his views/ commentary on a law he
just signed
can be used to express the president’s interpretation
of the law and his directions as to how the law will be
enforced by the executive branch
can be used to argue why he won’t enforce a part of
the law he sees as unconstitutional

77. Congressional caucus – a group of
members of Congress who share a
certain interest/belief and have common
legislative goals
Ex: Congressional Black Caucus, House
Freedom Caucus, Blue Dog Coalition

78. Congress and Interest
Groups
Coalition building - when groups or parties work
together to accomplish a common goal in government
Interest groups and lobbyists are always trying to
influence congressional decision-making
Congressional committees are the second side of an
iron triangle (strong alliance between an interest
group, a congressional committee, and an executive
agency to make policies)

79. Polarization in Congress
 Congress has increasingly become more polarized
D --------------------------------------------------------------------------R
the gap between different political ideologies and parties has
become wider with less chance for compromise in the middle
 Reasons:
Districts drawn to favor one party (GERRYMANDERING)-->
constituents are more likely to favor this party --> constitutents elect
polarizing, one-sided candidates --> Congressional behavior
reflects ideological attitudes of constituencies
House more likely to be more extreme in political views than
Senate because of district interests and pressures