Anti lock-brakes-project-report

Anti-Lock Braking System
Project Report
ON
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award
of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
Mechanical Engineering
(2020)
BY
Submitted by:
Under the guidance of
CollegeLogo
College Name
Affiliated to
Dr. A.P.J.ABDUL KALAM TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, LUCKNOW

Contents
Contents ...............................................................................................................................2
Introduction..........................................................................................................................7
How it works........................................................................................................................8
Literature Review...............................................................................................................11
Methodology......................................................................................................................14
Components .......................................................................................................................20
Anti-Lock Brake Types......................................................................................................24
Additional Developments............................................................................................28
Layout ................................................................................................................................29
Microcontroller:..............................................................................................................31
Power Supply.....................................................................................................................34
Working..........................................................................................................................34
Linear Power Supply ......................................................................................................34
Switched-Mode Power Supply .......................................................................................35
Electrical Transformer ....................................................................................................36
The Basic Working Principle..........................................................................................37
Resistor ...........................................................................................................................39
Ohm's Law ..................................................................................................................40
Capacitor.........................................................................................................................41
Atmega16 Programming....................................................................................................43
Hardware And Software Required..................................................................................44
Hardware .....................................................................................................................44
Software ......................................................................................................................44
Circuit Set Up .................................................................................................................44
Your First AVR Program................................................................................................46
PCB Design: ...................................................................................................................58
Action Plan: ....................................................................................................................67
Software Used:................................................................................................................68
Programming Languages Considered ................................................................................68
Advantages.........................................................................................................................70
Disadvantages ....................................................................................................................70
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................70
References..........................................................................................................................73

DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the project report entitled “Project Name” submitted is our original
work and the report has not formed the basis for the award of any degree, associate ship,
fellowship or any other similar title.
Signature:
Name:

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report entitled “Project Name” is the bona fide work
carried out by students of “College Name” during the year 2019 in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the award of the Degree of B. Tech. The report has not formed the
basis for the award previously of any degree, diploma, associate ship, fellowship or any
other similar title.
Signature of the guide:
Date:

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It gives me great pleasure to express my gratitude and heart full thanks to all those who
are helping me in complete this project.
I want to thank to “guide name”, who has always encouraged and help me in
making this project. In addition to this, I am grateful to other faculties too who made me
in right direction and gave me their precious time and expert guidance whenever
necessary through which I could achieve this extent.
At last but not the least I am feeling glad to say about my family whose wishes
are always with me, without which it was not possible for me to reach this extent.
I hope my work is praised and my efforts render fruitful result.
THANK YOU
Signature:
Name:

Chapter 1
Introduction

Introduction
An anti-lock braking system (ABS) is a safety system on motor vehicles which
prevents the wheels from locking while braking.
A rotating road wheel allows the driver to maintain steering control under heavy braking,
by preventing a locked wheel or skid, and allowing the wheel to continue to forward roll
and create lateral control, as directed by driver steering inputs. Disadvantages of the
system include increased braking distances under some limited circumstances (snow,
gravel, "soft" surfaces), and the creation of a "false sense of security" among drivers who
do not understand the operation, and limitations of ABS. A brake is one of the most
important parts of any type of vehicle. Brake is used to retard or stop a vehicle. Here
Kinetic energy transferred into Heat energy. The kinetic energy increases with the square
of the velocity. So, K.E.=1/2mv².An anti-lock braking system is a safety system that
allows the wheels on a motor vehicle to continue interacting attractively with the road
surface as directed by driver steering inputs while braking, preventing the wheels from
locking up (that is, ceasing rotation) and therefore avoiding skidding.
Stopping a car in a hurry on a slippery road can be very challenging. Anti-lock
braking systems (ABS) take a lot of the challenge out of this sometimes nerve-
wracking event. In fact, on slippery surfaces, even professional drivers can't stop as
quickly without ABS as an average driver can with ABS.
An ABS generally offers improved vehicle control and decreases stopping distances
on dry and slippery surfaces for many drivers; however, on loose surfaces like gravel
or snow-covered pavement, an ABS can significantly increase braking distance,
although still improving vehicle control.
Since initial widespread use in production cars, anti-lock braking systems have
evolved considerably. Recent versions not only prevent wheel lock under braking, but
also electronically control the front-to-rear brake bias.

HOW IT WORKS
A typical ABS includes a central electronic control unit (ECU), four wheel speed
sensors, and at least two hydraulic valves within the brake hydraulics. The ECU
constantly monitors the rotational speed of each wheel; if it detects a wheel rotating
significantly slower than the others, a condition indicative of impending wheel lock, it
actuates the valves to reduce hydraulic pressure to the brake at the affected wheel,
thus reducing the braking force on that wheel.
The wheel then turns faster. Conversely, if the ECU detects a wheel turning
significantly faster than the others, brake hydraulic pressure to the wheel is increased
so the braking force is reapplied, slowing down the wheel. This process is repeated
continuously and can be detected by the driver via brake pedal pulsation. Some anti-
lock system can apply or release braking pressure 16 times per second.
The ECU is programmed to disregard differences in wheel rotative speed below a
critical threshold, because when the car is turning, the two wheels towards the centre
of the curve turn slower than the outer two. For this same reason, a differential is used
in virtually all roadgoing vehicles.
If a fault develops in any part of the ABS, a warning light will usually be illuminated
on the vehicle instrument panel, and the ABS will be disabled until the fault is
rectified.

The modern ABS applies individual brake pressure to all four wheels through a
control system of hub-mounted sensors and a dedicated micro-controller. ABS is
offered or comes standard on most road vehicles produced today and is the foundation
for ESC systems, which are rapidly increasing in popularity due to the vast reduction
in price of vehicle electronics over the years.
Modern electronic stability control (ESC or ESP) systems are an evolution of the ABS
concept. Here, a minimum of two additional sensors are added to help the system
work: these are a steering wheel angle sensor, and a gyroscopic sensor. The theory of
operation is simple: when the gyroscopic sensor detects that the direction taken by the
car does not coincide with what the steering wheel sensor reports, the ESC software
will brake the necessary individual wheel(s) (up to three with the most sophisticated
systems), so that the vehicle goes the way the driver intends. The steering wheel
sensor also helps in the operation of Cornering Brake Control (CBC), since this will
tell the ABS that wheels on the inside of the curve should brake more than wheels on
the outside, and by how much.
The ABS equipment may also be used to implement a traction control system(TCS)
on acceleration of the vehicle. If, when accelerating, the tire loses traction, the ABS
controller can detect the situation and take suitable action so that traction is regained.
More sophisticated versions of this can also control throttle levels and brakes
simultaneously.

Chapter 2 Literature
review

Literature review
 Anti-lock braking systems were first developed for aircraft in 1929, by the French
automobile and aircraft pioneer, Gabriel Voisin, as threshold braking an airplane is nearly
impossible.
 An early system was Dunlop's Maxaret system, introduced in the 1950s and still in use on
some aircraft models.
 A fully mechanical system saw limited automobile use in the 1960s in the Ferguson P99
racing car, the Jensen FF and the experimental all wheel drive Ford Zodiac, but saw no
further use; the system proved expensive and, in automobile use, somewhat unreliable.
 However, a limited form of anti-lock braking, utilizing a valve which could adjust front to
rear brake force distribution when a wheel locked, was fitted to the 1964 Austin 1800.
 Chrysler, together with the Bendix Corporation, introduced a crude, limited production
ABS system on the 1971 Imperial. Called "Sure Brake", it was available for several years,
and had a satisfactory performance and reliability record.
 Ford also introduced anti lock brakes on the Lincoln Continental Mark III and the Ford
LTD station wagon, called "Sure Trak" in 1975.
 The German firms Bosch and Mercedes-Benz had been co-developing anti-lock braking
technology since the 1930s, and introduced the first completely electronic 4-wheel multi-
channel ABS system in trucks and the Mercedes-Benz S-Class in 1978.
 ABS Systems based on this more modern Mercedes design were later introduced on other
cars and motorcycles. General Motors introduced the "Trackmaster" ABS on their
Cadillac models in 1971 as an option that was operational on the rear wheels for RWD
models.

 In 1988 BMW became the world's first motorcycle manufacturer to introduce an
electronic/hydraulic ABS system, this on their BMW K100.
 In 1992 Honda launched its first ABS system, this on the ST1100 Pan European.
 In 1997 Suzuki launched its GSF1200SA (Bandit) with ABS
 Today ABS has become a standard equipment even for small cars

Chapter 3
Methodology

Methodology
Block Diagram:
When the car brakes (normally), the momentum of the car must be reduced, so a
backwards force needs to be transmitted to the car. This is achieved by the wheels
exerting a forward force on the street which lies below the threshold of maximum static
sliding friction. The wheels keep sticking to the road because of this friction.
ECU
Electronics control
unit
Motordriver
Motor
Wheel
12V/ 7Ah
Battery
12V
Compressor
Solenoid
valve
Piston
Brake
Speedand
brake sensor

If the driver brakes very hard (or accelerates extremely) it can occur that the maximum
static friction is surpassed and the wheels lose their grip and begin sliding (or spinning).
In this case the dynamic sliding friction (which is less than the maximum static friction)
takes over
The amount of traction which can be obtained for an auto tire is determined by the
coefficient of static friction between the tire and the road. If the wheel is locked and
sliding, the force of friction is determined by the coefficient of kinetic friction and is
usually significantly less. A tire that is just on the verge of slipping (10 to 20% slippage)
produces more friction with respect to the road than one which is locked and skidding
(100% slippage). Once traction is lost, friction is reduced, the tire skids and the vehicle
takes longer to stop. So locked wheels are less effective in stopping on a road

But in gravel, sand and deep snow, locked wheels dig in and stop the vehicle more
quickly. A locked tire allows a small wedge of snow to build up ahead of it which allows
it to stop in a somewhat
shorter distance than a
rolling tire. That is why
some vehicles have an
on/off switch for
deactivating the antilock
system when driving on
snow.
So, antilock brakes do
not necessarily reduce the
stopping distance, and in
fact may actually increase
stopping slightly on dry
pavement. But on wet or
slick pavement, antilock
brakes may reduce the
stopping distance up to
25% or more, which could
be the difference between a
safe stop and an accident
But what ABS provides is Directional stability which is very crucial.
Directional stability also depends on traction. As long as a tire does not slip, it will roll
only in the direction it turns. But once it skids, it has about as much directional stability as
a hockey puck on ice because, regardless of the angle of the front wheels, the vehicle
continues to skid in whatever direction its momentum sends it until either the driver
releases the brakes. By minimizing the loss of traction, antilock braking helps maintain
directional stability and steering control
Basic Operation

The Anti-lock Braking System is designed to maintain vehicle control, directional
stability and optimum deceleration under severe braking conditions on most road
surfaces.
It does so by monitoring the rotational speed of each wheel and controlling the brake
line pressure to each wheel during braking. This prevents the wheels from locking up.
The ABS system has following main components –
 Wheel Speed Sensors
 Abs Control Module
 Hydraulic Modulator
 Pump Motor & Accumulator.
The sensors - one at each wheel since1985, but at both front wheels and one at the rear
differential on earlier models – send a variable voltage signal to the control unit, which

monitors these signals, compares them to its program information, and determines whether
a wheel is about to lock up.
When a wheel is about to lock up, the control unit signals the hydraulic unit to reduce
hydraulic pressure (or not increase it further) at that wheel’s brake caliper. Pressure modulation
is handled by electrically-operated solenoid valves.
Regardless of manufacturer or the type of vehicle, all antilock brake systems operate in a
similar manner. Wheel speed sensors are placed on each wheel that is to be controlled. Each
speed sensor usually has a toothed wheel, like a gear, that rotates at the same speed as the
vehicle wheel or axle. Mounted close to, but not touching this toothed wheel, is a permanent
magnet wrapped with a coil of wire, called the pick-up coil (see illustration). As each tooth
rotates past the permanent magnet, it causes the magnetic field to concentrate and increase
slightly. This, in turn, induces a small pulse of current in the coil of wire. The number of pulses
per second is directly proportional to the speed of the wheel. The faster the wheel turns, the
faster the teeth pass the magnet and the higher the pulse rate.
The pulsed output from the wheel speed sensors goes to an electronic controller, which
monitors each wheel's speed relative to the speed of the other wheels. As long as the brakes are
not being applied and all of the monitored wheels are rotating at roughly the same speed, the
system takes no action. If, however, the brakes are being applied and one or more of the
monitored wheels suddenly begins to reduce speed at a higher rate than the others—indicating
a loss of traction with the road and an imminent wheel lockup and skid—the controller then
activates the antilock system.

The antilock brake system on any vehicle is simply an additional monitoring and
controlling function superimposed on the existing vehicle brake system. ABS is not a
second brake system, nor does it replace the vehicle brake system. When all four wheels
on an automobile are monitored and controlled, the system is called a four-channel ABS.
If the front two wheels plus the rear axle (but not each rear wheel individually) are to be
controlled, the system is called a three-channel ABS. On heavy trucks with two rear drive
axles, the ABS is commonly a four-channel system which controls the front wheels and
two of the four rear wheels. Trailers pulled by heavy truck tractors may also have their
own separate ABS which must interconnect with the ABS on the tractor.
In an automobile, the brakes are actuated by hydraulic pressure. The ABS controller
operates solenoid valves built into the high pressure side of the master brake cylinder.
These valves are normally open and do not interfere with braking. When the controller
senses that a wheel is locking up while braking, it first activates a solenoid to close a
valve in the affected wheel's brake line which prevents the pressure from increasing any
further. If the locked wheel continues to lose speed, the controller activates a second
solenoid which bleeds pressure off the affected brake line, in effect releasing the brake for
that wheel regardless of whether the driver is still pushing on the brake pedal. As soon as
the wheel regains traction and its speed increases, the solenoids are de-activated and
normal braking resumes. Of course, if the conditions are such that the wheel starts to skid

again, the brake will promptly begin to lock up and the ABS will take over. This cycle is
repeated 12 to 15 times per second until either the road condition changes or the driver
releases the brakes. The driver will be able to detect this rapid cycling as a vibration felt
through the brake pedal, but will not have to take any action. The ABS will minimize the
skid and will allow the driver to maintain directional control of the vehicle.
The brakes on a heavy truck are actuated by air pressure, rather than hydraulic pressure.
The antilock brake system on a truck works in a manner similar to the ABS on an
automobile, except the antilock air pressure control valves are located on the vehicle
frame rail, near each wheel.
Components
WHEEL SPEED SENSORS
The wheel speed sensors (WSS) consist of a magnetic pickup and a toothed sensor ring
(sometimes called a "tone" ring). The sensor(s) may be mounted in the steering knuckles,
wheel hubs, brake backing plates, transmission tail shaft or differential housing. On some
applications, the sensor is an integral part of the wheel bearing and hub assembly. The sensor
ring(s) may be mounted on the axle
hub behind the brake rotor, on the
brake rotor itself, inside the brake
drum, on the transmission tail shaft or
inside the differential on the pinion
shaft.
The wheel speed sensor pickup has
a magnetic core surrounded by coil
windings. As the wheel turns, teeth on
the sensor ring move through the
pickup magnetic field. This reverses
the polarity of the magnetic field and
induces an alternating current (AC)
voltage in the pickup windings. The number of voltage pulses per second that are induced in

the pickup changes in direct proportion to wheel speed. So as speed increases, the frequency
and amplitude of the wheel speed sensor goes up.
The WSS signal is sent to the antilock brake control module, where the AC signal is
converted into a digital signal and then processed. The control module then counts pulses to
monitor changes in wheel speed.
On applications where the wheel speed sensor is not part of the hub or wheel bearing
assembly, it can be replaced if defective. Sensor problems can be caused by an accumulation
of debris on the end (they are magnetic), incorrect air gap or faults in the wiring or
connectors.
ABS CONTROL MODULE

The ABS electronic control module (which may be referred to as an EBCM "Electronic
Brake Control Module" or EBM "Electronic Brake Module") is a microprocessor that
functions like the engine control computer. It uses input from its sensors to regulate
hydraulic pressure during braking to prevent wheel lockup. The ABS module may be
located in the trunk, passenger compartment or under the hood. It may be a separate
module or integrated with other electronics such as the body control or suspension
computer. On the
newer ABS
systems (Delphi
DBC-7, Teves
Mark 20, etc.), it
is mounted on the
hydraulic
modulator.
The key inputs for
the ABS control
module come
from the wheel
speed sensors and a brake pedal switch. The switch signals the control module when the
brakes are being applied, which causes it to go from a "standby" mode to an active mode.
When ABS braking is needed, the control module kicks into action and orders the
hydraulic unit to modulate brake pressure as needed. On systems that have a pump, it also
energizes the pump and relay.
Like any other electronic control module, the ABS module is vulnerable to damage
caused by electrical overloads, impacts and extreme temperatures. The module can
usually be replaced if defective, except on some of the newest systems where the module
is part of the hydraulic modulator assembly.
HYDRAULIC MODULATOR

The hydraulic modulator or actuator unit contains the ABS solenoid valves for each brake
circuit. The exact number of valves per circuit depends on the ABS system and
application. Some have a pair of on-off solenoid valves for each brake circuit while others
use a single valve that can operate in
more than one position. On Delco VI
ABS systems, small electric motors
are used in place of solenoids to
drive pistons up and down to
modulate brake pressure.
On some systems, the individual
ABS solenoids can be replaced if
defective, but on most applications the modulator is considered a sealed assembly and
must be replaced as a unit if defective.
Hydraulic modulator has a hydraulic modulator block including a reservoir and a
damper; and an electronic control block detachably attached to the surface of the
hydraulic modulator block. The reservoir and the damper are overlapped with each other
such that a surface of the hydraulic modulator block becomes entirely substantially flat.
With this, the hydraulic modulator becomes simple in construction. The hydraulic
modulator has a solenoid valve; an electronic control circuit board; and an electric wiring
pattern prepared by pressing a metal plate having a first major surface formed with a first
tin layer and a nickel layer and a second major surface formed with a second tin layer,
into a three-dimensional shape such that the electric wiring pattern is formed with (1) a
first terminal having a surface that is formed with the first or second tin layer electrically
connected with the solenoid valve, (2) a connector terminal having first and second
surfaces respectively formed with the first and second tin layers, and (3) a second
terminal having a surface that is formed with the nickel layer electrically connected with
the electronic control circuit board. Thus, each terminal has a secure electrical connection
with another member.
PUMP & ACCUMULATOR

A high pressure electric pump is used in some ABS systems to generate power assist for
normal braking as well as the reapplication of brake pressure during ABS braking. In
some systems, it is used only for the reapplication of pressure during ABS braking.
The pump motor is
energized via a relay
that is switched on and
off by the ABS control
module. The fluid
pressure that is
generated by the pump
is stored in the
"accumulator." The
accumulator on ABS
systems where the
hydraulic modulator is
part of the master cylinder assembly consists of a pressure storage chamber filled with
nitrogen gas.
Should the pump fail (a warning light comes on when reserve pressure drops too low),
there is usually enough reserve pressure in the accumulator for 10 to 20 power-assisted
stops. After that, there is no power assist. The brakes still work, but with increased effort.
On ABS systems that have a conventional master cylinder and vacuum booster for power
assist, a small accumulator or pair of accumulators may be used as temporary holding
reservoirs for brake fluid during the hold-release-reapply cycle. This type of accumulator
typically uses a spring loaded diaphragm rather than a nitrogen charged chamber to store
pressure.
Anti-Lock Brake Types

There are several ABS systems used by the auto manufacturers, every make and model
chooses what system is best suitable for their vehicle depending on size and weight, we
will show you the most common systems used today.
 Open and closed systems:
Open anti-lock system : Open anti-lock system is one in which the brake fluid released
from the brakes during ABS stop is not returned to the brake during the ABS stop;
instead, the fluid is stored in an accumulator during the ABS stop, then returned to the
master cylinder reservoir afterwards.
A disadvantage of the open systems is that the brake pedal will drop during a long
ABS stop as fluid flows from the brake lines.
Some open systems have a pump that restores fluid to the master cylinder to keep the
pedal from sinking, but the pump is not involved in the actual anti-lock function.
This type is used in simple-real wheel-only ABS designs.
Closed system: Closed system has some means, generally an electrically powered pump,
to restore hydraulic pressure that's bled off during an ABS stop.
The pump supplies fluid to an accumulator, where it's stored under pressure until is
needed to increase brake line pressure. In some cases, pump pressure is applied to the
brakes during the ABS stop, with the amount and timing of pressure application
controlled by a solenoid valve.
 By The Number Of Channels :
Anti-lock braking systems by the number of channels -- that is, how many valves that are
individually controlled -- and the number of speed sensors

Four-channel, four-sensor ABS - This is the best scheme. There is a speed sensor on all
four wheels and a separate valve for all four wheels. With this setup, the controller
monitors each wheel individually to make sure it is achieving maximum braking force.
Three-channel, three-sensor ABS - This scheme, commonly found on pickup trucks
with four-wheel ABS, has a speed sensor and a valve for each of the front wheels, with
one valve and one sensor for both rear wheels. The speed sensor for the rear wheels is
located in the rear axle.
This system provides individual control of the front wheels, so they can both achieve
maximum braking force. The rear wheels, however, are monitored together; they both
have to start to lock up before the ABS will activate on the rear. With this system, it is
possible that one of the rear wheels will lock during a stop, reducing brake effectiveness.
One-channel, one-sensor ABS - This system is commonly found on pickup trucks with
rear-wheel ABS. It has one valve, which controls both rear wheels, and one speed sensor,
located in the rear axle.
This system operates the same as the rear end of a three-channel system. The rear wheels
are monitored together and they both have to start to lock up before the ABS kicks in. In
this system it is also possible that one of the rear wheels will lock, reducing brake
effectiveness.
This system is easy to identify. Usually there will be one brake line going through a T-
fitting to both rear wheels. You can locate the speed sensor by looking for an electrical
connection near the differential on the rear-axle housing
 Integrated systems and Non-integrated systems
Integrated systems:
An integrated system gets its name from the fact that the major hydraulic components like
the brake booster and the hydraulic modulator are integrated into a unit with the master

cylinder. Other components, such as the accumulator and hydraulic modulator, may also
be part of the assembly. Many of these systems have no vacuum booster.
In such systems, the ABS pump provides brake boost as well as the pressure necessary for
anti-lock brake operation.
The pump forces fluid into one or more accumulators, where is stored at very high
pressures, typically 2000 to 3000 psi until it is needed. On systems without a vacuum
booster, the booster is a valve, controlled by the driver's foot on the brake pedal, which
regulates the amount of boost applied.
Non-integrated systems:
Non-integrated systems, also known as "add-on" ABS, are installed in conventional brake
systems between the master cylinder and the wheel brakes. A vacuum booster is used.
The master cylinder is very much alike, or in some cases identical, to the master cylinder
used with non-anti-lock brakes.
The hydraulic modulator is installed near the master cylinder. The brake fluid lines from
the master cylinder connect to the hydraulic modulator. Brake lines run from the
hydraulic modulator to each of the wheel brakes.
During normal braking, it's as if the hydraulic modulator weren't there, hydraulic pressure
from the master cylinder flows uninterrupted through the modulator to the brakes.
During an ABS stop, the hydraulic modulator rapidly changes the hydraulic pressure at
the wheel brakes, holding it steady, reducing it, or letting it increase. Fluid pressure is
reduced by allowing some of the high pressure to return to its source. This low pressure
fluid in an ABS system is commonly referred as "decayed" fluid.
 Hydraulic circuits:
Primary:
The primary circuit is normally operated by the master cylinder piston closest to the rear
of the master cylinder, and thus in direct contact with the booster pushrod.
Secondary:

The secondary circuit is operated by the master cylinder piston closest to the front of the
master cylinder.
In the case of front-rear split circuits, the primary circuit operates both front brakes and
the secondary circuit operates both rear brakes, in diagonally split circuits, the primary
operates one front brake and diagonally opposite rear, while the secondary operates the
remaining two wheels.
Additional developments
Modern Electronic Stability Control (ESC or ESP) systems are an evolution of the ABS
concept. Here, a minimum of two additional sensors are added to help the system work:
these are a steering wheel angle sensor, and a gyroscopic sensor. The theory of operation
is simple: when the gyroscopic sensor detects that the direction taken by the car does not
coincide with what the steering wheel sensor reports, the ESC software will brake the
necessary individual wheel(s) (up to three with the most sophisticated systems), so that

the vehicle goes the way the driver intends. The steering wheel sensor also helps in the
operation of Cornering Brake Control (CBC), since this will tell the ABS that wheels on
the inside of the curve should brake more than wheels on the outside, and by how much
Layout
Current Options
Papers (License, Pollution Certificate etc.):
Traffic police department have been using the traditional techniques of issuing original
papers since the start checking.
Sticker:

Police now attaching stickers on Wheelers after checking papers. They paste stickers on
every vehicle. Both Road Transport Authority and police officials‘ informed that the
vehicles having no stickers would be considered faulty and illegal and that action wo uld
be taken against them.
Barcode:
We may think of Barcode as in some countries departments are using this. But all the
above options have modern challenges that may not be overcome easily. Recently huge
improvement has been evolved in printing industry and we have found even false money
has become impossible to identify. Therefore papers are not enough to overcome the
critical situation and very hard to implement in speedy and busy roads. Special stickers
may take some time to copy but when it would become older then the fraud owners would
take the same chances. About bar code the most important thing is the reader requires to
bring very close to the tags (and in line of sight). And paper tags are easily become
useless if they are wet and torn.
Camera
Opponents of traffic cameras believe traffic cameras violate privacy and a citizen‘s right
to face his/her accuser. Because this camera photograph people without their knowledge.
Another disadvantages of traffic cameras is that they often do not work correctly. The
camera and recording system may not be maintained properly. And sometimes the
picture is not clear.
New Solution
The main objective of the proposed system is to automate the on road vehicle checking
by the police department. For which we are introducing a new concept that every vehicle
should have RF Device fitted with the vehicle. By replacing the on road checking and
camera placed near by road for checking vehicle, the RF Reading device placed near by
the road will read the card details, and automatically validates the owner details and
corresponding certificate details. If any mismatch found the system will automatically
send alerts to the specific department. Another facility provided by the system is lost
vehicle detection and/or vehicle robbery tracking. The owner and police department can

see the vehicle position that is the vehicle is under which station limit. So it will be much
easier to find out the vehicle. Therefore, the best solution is using Radio Frequency
Identification (RFID) Technology.
MICROCONTROLLER:
When we have to learn about a new computer we have to familiarize about the
machine capability we are using, and we can do it by studying the internal hardware
design (devices architecture), and also to know about the size, number and the size of the
registers.
A microcontroller is a single chip that contains the processor (the CPU), non-
volatile memory for the program (ROM or flash), volatile memory for input and output
(RAM), a clock and an I/O control unit. Also called a "computer on a chip," billions of
microcontroller units (MCUs) are embedded each year in a myriad of products from toys
to appliances to automobiles. For example, a single vehicle can use 70 or more
microcontrollers. The following picture describes a general block diagram of
microcontroller.

Features
High-performance, Low-power AVR® 8-bit Microcontroller
Advanced RISC Architecture
131 Powerful Instructions Most Single-clock Cycle Execution
32 x 8 General Purpose Working Registers
Fully Static Operation
Up to 16 MIPS Throughput at 16 MHz
On-chip 2-cycle Multiplier
Nonvolatile Program and Data Memories
16K Bytes of In-System Self-Programmable Flash
Endurance: 10,000 Write/Erase Cycles
Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits
In-System Programming by On-chip Boot Program
True Read-While-Write Operation
512 Bytes EEPROM
Endurance: 100,000 Write/Erase Cycles
1K Byte Internal SRAM
Programming Lock for Software Security
JTAG (IEEE std. 1149.1 Compliant) Interface
Boundary-scan Capabilities According to the JTAG Standard
Extensive On-chip Debug Support
Programming of Flash, EEPROM, Fuses, and Lock Bits through the JTAG Interface
Peripheral Features
Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Presales and Compare Modes
One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Presale, Compare Mode, and Capture
Mode
Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator
Four PWM Channels
8-channel, 10-bit ADC
8 Single-ended Channels
7 Differential Channels in TQFP Package Only
2 Differential Channels with Programmable Gain at 1x, 10x, or 200x
Byte-oriented Two-wire Serial Interface
Programmable Serial USART

Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface
Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip Oscillator
On-chip Analog Comparator
Special Microcontroller Features
Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection
Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator
External and Internal Interrupt Sources
Six Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save, Power-down, Standbyand
Extended Standby
I/O and Packages
32 Programmable I/O Lines
40-pin PDIP, 44-lead TQFP, and 44-pad MLF
Operating Voltages
2.7 - 5.5V for ATmega16L
4.5 - 5.5V for ATmega16
Speed Grades
0 - 8 MHz for ATmega16L
0 - 16 MHz for ATmega16
Power Consumption @ 1 MHz, 3V, and 25°C for ATmega16L
Active: 1.1 mA
Idle Mode: 0.35 mA
Power-down Mode: < 1 μA

Power supply
Working
This design is based around 4 main parts. A transformer, bridge rectifier, a smoothing
capacitor and the LM7805 chip which contains a 'linear voltage regulator'.
Transformer is used to convert 220 VAC to 18 VAC. Bridge rectifier is used to
convert AC to ripple DC. Capacitor is used to filter ripples from dc. 7805 voltage
regulator is used to regulate voltage to 5 VDC. LED is used for indication power
supply is working or not.
Linear power supply
A linear regulated power supply regulates the output voltage by dropping excess
voltage in a series dissipative component. They use a moderately complex regulator
circuit to achieve very low load and line regulation. Linear regulated power supplies
also have very little ripple and very little output noise. The above power supply is
linear power supply.

Switched-mode power supply
In a switched-mode power supply (SMPS), the AC mains input is directly rectified and
then filtered to obtain a DC voltage. The resulting DC voltage is then switched on and off
at a high frequency by electronic switching circuitry, thus producing an AC current that
will pass through a high-frequency transformer or inductor. Switching occurs at a very
high frequency (typically 10 kHz — 1 MHz), thereby enabling the use of transformers
and filter capacitors that are much smaller, lighter, and less expensive than those found in
linear power supplies operating at mains frequency. After the inductor or transformer
secondary, the high frequency AC is rectified and filtered to produce the DC output
voltage. If the SMPS uses an adequately insulated high-frequency transformer, the output
will be electrically isolated from the mains; this feature is often essential for safety.
Switched-mode power supplies are usually regulated, and to keep the output voltage
constant, the power supply employs a feedback controller that monitors current drawn by
the load. The switching duty cycle increases as power output requirements increase.
SMPSs often include safety features such as current limiting or a crowbar circuit to help
protect the device and the user from harm. In the event that an abnormal high-current
power draw is detected, the switched-mode supply can assume this is a direct short and
will shut itself down before damage is done. PC power supplies often provide a power
good signal to the motherboard; the absence of this signal prevents operation when
abnormal supply voltages are present.
Some SMPSs have an absolute limit on their minimum current output. They are only able
to output above a certain power level and cannot function below that point. In a no-load
condition the frequency of the power slicing circuit increases to great speed, causing the
isolated transformer to act as a Tesla coil, causing damage due to the resulting very high
voltage power spikes. Switched-mode supplies with protection circuits may briefly turn
on but then shut down when no load has been detected. A very small low-power dummy
load such as a ceramic power resistor or 10-watt light bulb can be attached to the supply
to allow it to run with no primary load attached.
The switch-mode power supplies used in computers have historically had low power
factors and have also been significant sources of line interference (due to induced power

line harmonics and transients). In simple switch-mode power supplies, the input stage
may distort the line voltage waveform, which can adversely affect other loads (and result
in poor power quality for other utility customers), and cause unnecessary heating in wires
and distribution equipment. Furthermore, customers incur higher electric bills when
operating lower power factor loads. To circumvent these problems, some computer
switch-mode power supplies perform power factor correction, and may employ input
filters or additional switching stages to reduce line interference.
Electrical Transformer
Transformers are capable of receiving AC power at one voltage and delivering it at
another voltage. In this article, we will go through the working and construction of a 3
phase transformer by starting from its simplest form. We will also understand what power
transformer is and how it is constructed.
Why Transformers are used?
Transformers are ubiquitous devices. They are used to either step-up the A.C voltage or to
step-down it. But, why should we do this voltage transformation? It is a science fact that a
stepped-up voltage is associated with a reduced current. A reduced current leads to low
eddy current energy loss. In this way, transformers help achieve better transmission
efficiency while transferring the power over longer distances.

Fig.1 Transformers help in step-up or step-down the voltage; this in turn increases the
transmission efficiency
After the electrical power has transmitted to the desired spot, the voltage can be reduced
to the desired level, using a step-down transformer.
The Basic Working Principle
The basic working principle of a transformer is simple, electromagnetic induction.
According to this principle, a varying magnetic flux associated with a loop will induce an
electromotive force across it. Such a fluctuating magnetic field can easily be produced by
a coil and an alternating E.M.F (EP) system. A current carrying conductor produces a
magnetic field around it. The magnetic field produced by a coil will be as shown in the
first part of Fig.2. With the fluctuating nature of the alternating current, the magnetic field
associated with the coil will also fluctuate.
This magnetic flux can be effectively linked to a secondary winding with the help of a
core made up of a ferromagnetic material. The linked magnetic flux is shown in the
second part of Fig.2. This fluctuating magnetic field will induce an E.M.F in the
secondary coils due to electromagnetic induction. The induced E.M.F is denoted by ES.

Fig.2 AC current in a coil produces a fluctuating magnetic field; this magnetic field can
effectively linked to a secondary coil with the help of a core
Since the turns are arranged in a series, the net E.M.F induced across the winding will be
sum of the individual E.M.Fs (eS) induced in each turn. Nsrepresents, number of turns at
the secondary winding.
Since the same magnetic flux is passing through the primary and secondary coils, the
EMF per turn for both the primary and secondary coils will be the same.
The E.M.F per turn for the primary coil is related to the applied input voltage as shown.
By rearraging the above equations, it can be established that, the induced E.M.F at the
secondary coil is expressed as follows.
This simply means that with fewer turns in the secondary than in primary, one can lower
the voltage. Such transformers are known as step-down transformers. For the reverse
case, one can increase the voltage (step-up transformer).
But since energy is conserved, the primary and secondary currents have to obey the
following relationship.

Resistor
A resistor is a passivetwo-terminalelectrical component that implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current
flow, adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements, and terminate
transmission lines, among other uses. High-power resistors that can dissipate many watts
of electrical power as heat may be used as part of motor controls, in power distribution
systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that only change
slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used to
adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing
devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.
Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be
composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors are also implemented within
integrated circuits.
The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial
resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The
nominal value of the resistance falls within the manufacturing tolerance, indicated on the
component.

Ohm's law
The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified by Ohm's law:
Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I),
where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R). For example, if a 300 ohm
resistor is attached across the terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 =
0.04 amperes flows through that resistor.
Practical resistors also have some inductance and capacitance which affect the relation
between voltage and current in alternating current circuits.
The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon
Ohm. An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and
manufactured over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 mΩ =
10−3 Ω), kilohm (1 kΩ = 103 Ω), and megohm (1 MΩ = 106 Ω) are also in common usage.

Capacitor
A capacitor is a passivetwo-terminalelectrical component that stores electrical energy in
an electric field. The effect of a capacitor is known as self-capacitance. While capacitance
exists between any two electrical conductors of a circuit in sufficiently close proximity, a
capacitor is specifically designed to provide and enhance this effect for a variety of
practical applications by consideration of size, shape, and positioning of closely spaced
conductors, and the intervening dielectric material. A capacitor was there for historically
first known as an electric condenser.
The physical form and construction of practical capacitors vary widely and many
capacitor types are in common use. Most capacitors contain at least two electrical
conductors often in the form of metallic plates or surfaces separated by a dielectric
medium. The conductors may be foils, thin films, or sintered beads of metal or conductive
electrolyte. The no conducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge capacity.
Materials commonly used as dielectrics include glass, ceramic, plastic film, paper, mica,

and oxide layers. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many
common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy.
When two conductors experience a potential difference, for example, when a capacitor is
attached across a battery, an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing a net
positive charge to collect on one plate and net negative charge to collect on the other
plate. No current actually flows through the dielectric; instead, the effect is a
displacement of charges through the source circuit. If the condition is maintained
sufficiently long, this displacement current through the battery seizes. However, if a time-
varying voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor, the source experiences an
ongoing current due to the charging and discharging cycles of the capacitor.
Capacitance is defined as the ratio of the electric charge Q on each conductor to the
potential difference V between them. The unit of capacitance in the International System
of Units (SI) is the farad (F), which is equal to one coulomb per volt (1 C/V). Capacitance
values of typical capacitors for use in general electronics range from about 1 pF (10−12 F)
to about 1 mF (10−3 F).
The parallel plate capacitor is the simplest form of capacitor. It can be constructed using
two metal or metallized foil plates at a distance parallel to each other, with its capacitance
value in Farads, being fixed by the surface area of the conductive plates and the distance
of separation between them. Altering any two of these values alters the value of its
capacitance and this forms the basis of operation of the variable capacitors.

Also, because capacitors store the energy of the electrons in the form of an electrical
charge on the plates the larger the plates and/or smaller their separation the greater will be
the charge that the capacitor holds for any given voltage across its plates. In other words,
larger plates, smaller distance, more capacitance.
By applying a voltage to a capacitor and measuring the charge on the plates, the ratio of
the charge Q to the voltage V will give the capacitance value of the capacitor and is
therefore given as: C = Q/V this equation can also be re-arranged to give the more
familiar formula for the quantity of charge on the plates as: Q = C x V.
ATMEGA16 PROGRAMMING
In this section will walk you through the steps required to program an AVR chip using the
AVRISP mkII.
AVR chip, programmer, adapter, breadboard and power supply

Hardware and Software Required
Here is a list of things you’ll need
Hardware
 4.7K resistor
 1k resistor
 LED
 AVR Chip: I’ll use the atmega328p
 Programmer: AVRISP mkII
 AVR Programmer Adapter (optional)
 Jumper Wires
 5V Power supply. You can of course use batteries if you prefer.
Software
 AVR Studio 5
Circuit Set Up
Simply find the pins in your programmer, match them to the pins in your chip and
connect them. Also connect the resistor from pin 7 to power.

AVRISP MKII pins
ATmega328p pin out
Now because the programmer doesn’t have one squared hole, or at least mine doesn’t, it
has many, let me show how how that looks in real life, and yes it is like a mirror image of
the image above (weird right?).
AVRispmkII holes
Now that we have everything connected…

AVRISP mkII: circuit to program
..let’s move on to the software. Check out the picture at the very top of this page to see
how much neater your circuit will be with the programming adapter.
Your First AVR Program
Let me go ahead and walk you through the steps of using AVR Studio 5.
Once you have opened AVR Studio click on File ->New -> Project.

Creating a new project in AVR Stduio 5
Name your project, I named mine firstprogram. Now click the OK button.

naming your project
Next you will be greeted with an almost blank C file.

AVR Studio blank template C file
So what software are we going to write? how about we make an led blinker. Connect an
LED to port C5 of your microcontroller through the 1k resistor and then to ground.

red led connected to port C5 (pin 28) of the ATmega328p
Now back to AVR Studio. Replace the text in the file with the following.
1. #include<avr/io.h>
2. #include<avr/delay.h>// has some delay functions you can use
3.
4. int main(void)
5. {
6. DDRC=0xff;// all C ports as output
7. while(1)
8. {
9. //TODO:: Please write your application code
10.
11. PORTC=0xff;// turn on all C porst
12. _delay_ms(200);// wait 200 milliseconds

13. PORTC=0x00;// turn off all c ports
14. _delay_ms(200);// wait 200 milliseconds
15.
16.
17. }
18. }
The code that gets uploaded to the microcontroller is actually a HEX file, but we have to
tell AVR Studio to make this file. To do that right click on your project’s name on the
right in the solution explorer window and click on The code that gets uploaded to the
microcontroller is actually a HEX file, but we have to tell AVR Studio to make this file.
To do that right click on your project’s name on the right in the solution explorer window
and click on properties.

hex file checkbox, make sure it's checked.

Now to actually generate the hex file click Build->Build Solution
avr studio build menuthis will compile the program and generate the hex file we need.
You should not get any errors, as shown below.
program compilation errorsno compilation errorsUpload The Code to The
Microcontroller
At last, we are done with all the software developing stuff, uploading is just as easy.
Click on Tools->AVR Programmingavr studio tools menu
avr studio tools menuYou’ll get the programming window. Make sure that your device is
selected.
avr programming windowthe programming windowNow in the following order, click on
the Apply button, then the voltage button (recycling/refresh looking icon) will become
active now click it, you should get some value close to 5 volts. Then click on the Read
button. If you didn’t get any error window you are good to go.
Clicking the Read and Voltage buttons is not necessary actually, but the Apply button
is.avr studio programming window: 5 volts and device idprogramming window after
clicking buttonslastly click on Memories and select your hex file then click Program, the
programmer will start blinking and stop when your program is done uploading.avr studio
memories window, hex file ready to uploadhex file ready for upload

If you are into electronics, PCBs are the most common things you will see. These boards
make our lives easier by eliminating all those connecting wires and breadboards. If
properly designed, it even makes our project look smaller and sexy.
What is a circuit board? A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and
electrically connects electronic components using conductive tracks, pads and other
features etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate.A printed
circuit board has pre-designed copper tracks on a conducting sheet. The pre-defined
tracks reduce the wiring thereby reducing the faults arising due to lose connections. One
needs to simply place the components on the PCB and solder them.
In this cool tutorial, I will show you how you can make circuit boards at home easily.
Doing so will save you a lot of time from debugging and double checking the connections
on a breadboard. You could even make your own arduino after going through this
tutorial: DIY Arduino and the current one. So, sit back and see how its done really easily
:)
What are the different ways to make a Circuit Board?
There are in all three basic methods to make PCB:
1. Iron on Glossy paper method.
2. Circuit by hand on PCB.
3. Laser cutting edge etching.

Since laser method is industrial method to make PCB we will get in detail of first two
methods to make PCB at home.
PCB Design:
PCB design is usually done by converting your circuit’s schematic diagram into a PCB
layout using PCB layout software. There are many cool open source software packages
for PCB layout creation and design.
Some are listed here to give you a head-start:
1. Cadsoft Eagle (http://www.cadsoftusa.com/download-eagle/?language=en)
2. PCBWizard (http://pcb-wizard.software.informer.com/4.0/)
Design your circuit schematic in Cadsoft Eagle:
In Eagle: File> Export>ImageBe sure to set DPIG to 1200 for better quality
What are the stuff required to make a Circuit Board?

You also need: FeCl3 powder/solution (same as etching solution), photo/glossy paper,
permanent black marker, blade cutter, sandpaper, kitchen paper, cotton wool.
For this tutorial, lets consider making a PCB for a simple project- a Touch Switch using
IC555.
STEP 1: Take printout of circuit board layout
Take a print out of your PCB layout using the laser printer and the A4 photo paper/glossy
paper. Keep in mind the following points:

 You should take the mirror print out.
 Select the output in black both from the PCB design software and printer driver
settings.
 Make sure that the printout is made on the glossy side of the paper.
PCB print on glossy paper
STEP 2: Cutting the copper plate for the circuit board
Cut the copper board according to the size of layout using a hacksaw or a cutter.
Copper clad plate

Cutting the plate
Next, rub the copper side of PCB using steel wool or abrasive spongy scrubs. This
removes the top oxide layer of copper as well as the photo resists layer. Sanded surfaces
also allows the image from the paper to stick better.
Rubbing away the top oxide layer
STEP 3: Transferring the PCB print onto the copper plate
Method 1 Iron on glossy paper method (for complex circuits): Transfer the printed
image (taken from a laser printer) from the photo paper to the board. Make sure to flip top
layer horizontally. Put the copper surface of the board on the printed layout. Ensure that

the board is aligned correctly along the borders of the printed layout. And use tape to
hold the board and the printed paper in the correct position.
Place the printed side of the paper on the plate
Method 2 Circuit by hand on PCB (for simple and small circuits): Taking the circuit
as reference, draw a basic sketch on copper plate with pencil and then by using a
permanent black marker.
Using the permanent marker for sketching the PCB
STEP 4: Ironing the circuit from the paper onto the PCB plate
 After printing on glossy paper, we iron it image side down to copper side. Heat up
the electric iron to the maximum temperature.
 Put the board and photo paper arrangement on a clean wooden table (covered with
a table cloth) with the back of the photo paper facing you.

 Using pliers or a spatula, hold one end and keep it steady. Then put the hot iron on
the other end for about 10 seconds. Now, iron the photo paper all along using the
tip and applying little pressure for about 5 to 15 mins.
 Pay attention towards the edges of the board – you need to apply pressure, do the
ironing slowly.
 Doing a long hard press seems to work better than moving the iron around.
 Here, the heat from the iron transfers the ink printed on the glossy paper to the
copper plate.
Iron the paper onto the plate
CAUTION: Do not directly touch copper plate because it is very hot due to ironing.
After ironing, place printed plate in luke warm water for around 10 minutes. Paper will
dissolve, then remove paper gently. Remove the paper off by peeling it from a low angle.
Peeling the paper

In some cases while removing the paper, some of the tracks get fainted. In the figure
below, you can see that the track is light in colour hence we can use a black marker to
darken it as shown.
Light trace
Darkening the trace
STEP 5: Etching the plate
You need to be really careful while performing this step.
 First put rubber or plastic gloves.
 Place some newspaper on the bottom so that the etching solution does not spoil
your floor.
 Take a plastic box and fill it up with some water.
 Dissolve 2-3 tea spoon of ferric chloride power in the water.

 Dip the PCB into the etching solution (Ferric chloride solution, FeCl3) for
approximately 30 mins.
 The FeCl3 reacts with the unmasked copper and removes the unwanted copper
from the PCB.
 This process is called as Etching. Use pliers to take out the PCB and check if the
entire unmasked area has been etched or not. In case it is not etched leave it for
some more time in the solution.
Etching the plate
Gently move the plastic box to and fro so that etching solution reacts with the exposed
copper. The reaction is given as:
Cu + FeCl3 = CuCl3 + Fe
After every two minutes check if all the copper has been removed. If it hasn’t then place
it back in the solution and wait.
CAUTION: Always use gloves while touching the plate having the solution.

Etched copper plate
STEP 6: Cleaning, disposing and final touches for the circuit board
Be careful while disposing the etching solution, since its toxic to fish and other water
organisms. And don’t think about pouring it in the sink when you are done, it is illegal to
do so and might damage your pipes (hehe, who knew you could get arrested while
making a PCB!). So dilute the etching solution and then throw it away somewhere safe.
A few drops of thinner (nail polish remover works well) on a pinch of cotton wool will
remove completely the toner/ink on the plate, exposing the copper surface. Rinse
carefully and dry with a clean cloth or kitchen paper. Trim to final size and smoothen
edges with sandpaper.

Removing the ink
Now, drill holes using a PCB driller like this: PCB driller and solder all your cool
components. If you want that traditional green PCB look, apply solder resist paint on top:
PCB lacquer. And finally! your super cool circuit board would be ready!
Action Plan:
 Module 1: Circuit designing and component selection.
 Module 2: PCB designing and components mounting.
 Module 3: Coding of firmware.
 Module 4: Software development for desktop.
 Module 5: Integration of all module and testing
 Module 6: Documentation.

S.no Description Date
1 Circuit designing and component selection 30Sep 18
2 PCB designs and components mounting 30oct 18
3 Coding of firmware 15Jan 19
4 Software development for desktop 15Feb 19
5 Testing and Documentation 30Feb 19
Software used:
 Programming of microcontroller in C programming language.
 AVR studio is used for compiling the code.
 DIP trace for PCB designing
 Software will be developing for windows os.
Programming Languages Considered
 All the software developed for this project will be loaded into the memory of the
ATmega16 microcontroller.
 The language must be supported by the ATmega16 compiler
 The ATmega16 compiler supports C and Assembly
Reasons for Selection C Programming Language:
 Vast amount of online resources
 Ease of development
 Team members have experience of coding in C.

Chapter 4
Advantages and
limitations

Advantages
 It allows the driver to maintain directional stability and control over steering
during braking
 Safe and effective
 Automatically changes the brake fluid pressure at each wheel to maintain
optimum brake performance.
 ABS absorbs the unwanted turbulence shock waves and modulates the pulses thus
permitting the wheel to continue turning under maximum braking pressure
Disadvantages
 Increased braking distances under some limited circumstances (ice, snow, gravel,
"soft" surfaces),
 Creation of a "false sense of security" among drivers who do not understand the
operation, and limitations of ABS.
 The anti-lock brakes are more sensitive on the damper condition. the influence of
the worn components on the performance of the vehicle with anti-lock brakes is
more significant than without anti-lock brakes, the stopping distance with
defective shocks is by meters longer for the presented simulation scenario.
Conclusion
Statistics show that approximately 40 % of automobile accidents are due to
skidding.
These problems commonly occur on vehicle with conventional brake
system which can be avoided by adding devices called ABS.

If there is an ABS failure, the system will revert to normal brake operation.
Normally the ABS warning light will turn on and let the driver know there
is a fault.

Chapter 5 References

References
1. Prof. Raul. G. Longoria, ME, University of Texas, Austin
http://www.me.utexas.edu/~longoria/VSDC/.
2. Maruti Suzuki Swift Dzire VXi has hit the roads with powerful Anti-Lock
Braking System, an essential safety feature.
3. Maruti Suzuki Swift Dzire VXi by devika rajpali / Electronics community.
4. http://autorepair.about.com/od/glossary/a/def_ABS.html
Chapter5

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