The document discusses factors that influenced ancient Egyptian architecture such as geography, geology, climate, religion, and history. It describes key architectural features of Egyptian structures like temples, pyramids, and tombs. Some key points made are that the Nile river valley enabled agriculture and settlements in Egypt. Egyptian architecture used stone, bricks, sloped walls, columns, and lacked windows. Pyramids evolved from mastabas and step pyramids to the peaked pyramids at Giza. Major sites discussed include the temples at Karnak, Abu Simbel, and Hatshepsut's mortuary temple.

1. FACTORS INFLUENCING ARCHITECTURE:
Geographical: The satellite imagery shows the narrow fertile strip of alluvial soil on the
banks of river Nile flowing through the desert, which made agriculture possible that
resulted in the development of towns & settlements on the eastern bank of the river.
Egyptians built their pyramids & tomb structures on the western bank, which was known as
the valley of the dead. The Nile river also served as a route of transport & communication &
is considered to be sacred by the Egyptians as it serves as the life blood of Egypt.
ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE

2. • Geological: Egypt had limestone in the north, sandstone in the central region & granite
in the south. The gigantic scale of Egyptian architecture was mainly possible due to the
Egyptian methods of quarrying, transporting & raising enormous blocks of stone to
position. Sun-dried & kiln burnt bricks made from Nile mud & chopped straw were used
for palaces & houses, while stone was used for pyramids & temples.
• Climatic: Egypt has a warm, sunny climate with very little rainfall that has led to the
preservation of its ancient buildings. Since sufficient light reached the interiors through
doors & roof slits, Egyptian architecture is characterized by the absence of windows. The
massive walls, without openings, protected the interior from the fierce desert sun & also
provided the surface for “hieroglyphics” which is a script with pictorial representations.
The absence of rain also resulted in the use of flat roof with thick stone slabs.

3. • Religious: The key note of the Egyptian religion is the submission to the power of the
sun god, Ammon & the worship of Osiris, the man-god who died & rose again to eternal
life. Egyptian religion had many gods representing the sun, moon, stars & animals. The
belief in life after death made the Egyptians to build numerous tomb-houses &
pyramids for the preservation of the dead.
• Social: the Pharaoh, who was considered to be the descendent of the sun god, headed a
despotic government, which employed vast armies of laborers in the erection of
monumental buildings, when the annual inundations made agriculture impossible.
Social life is graphically depicted in the wall sculptures of tombs. Slave labor is written
all over the monuments of Egypt with the priests enjoying an exalted position in society.
• Historical: The Pharaohs who ruled Egypt have been divided into 30 dynasties & 3
divisions by historians as follows:
1. Ancient kingdom (4400 – 2466 BC) – Mastabas were built during the 3rd dynasty & most
pyramids were built during the 4th dynasty.
2. Middle kingdom (2466 – 1600 BC) – 12th dynasty founded the great temple of Ammon
at karnak.
3. New kingdom ( 1600 – 332 BC) – Thebes became the capital & queen Hatsheput
constructed the terraced temple at Der-el –bahari. Amenophis III built the temple at
luxor & Rameses II completed the hypostyle hall of Ammon temple, built the rock
temple at Abu simbel & the Ramesseum at Thebes, mainly by using the slave labor of
the hebrews.

4. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER OF EGYPT
• The walls of Egyptian buildings are sloped on the outside, which is referred to as the
“batter” of the walls, while remaining vertical on the inside. These windowless walls
were suitable for their relief sculptures known as hieroglyphics.
• Egyptian columns have an inverted bell capital derived from the papyrus flower or the
bud capital derived from the lotus bud.
•Temples are approached by avenues of sphinxes, with the body of a lion & the head of a
man, ram or hawk. The entrance to the temples are articulated by massive pylons. The
interior of temples have great courts, hypostyle (pillared) halls & mysterious chambers.
Light was brought to the interior of temples using clear story lighting method & all wall
surfaces and columns had pictorial frescoes & carvings, painted in brilliant colors.
•Egyptian architecture is impressive for its monumental scale, the solidity & the eternal
character of its buildings.

5. EVOLUTION OF PYRAMIDS
•At first priests & high ranking officials came to be buried in tombs that were known as
mastabas. Most of them had many storage chambers for storing all types of goods needed
in the next life. However, due to frequent thefts, an under ground tomb known as the
stairway mastaba came to be preferred. The picture above shows the early mastabas at
Giza with false doors & other safety devices.

6. ZOSER’S STEPPED PYRAMID AT SAKKARA
The step pyramid of pharaoh Zoser was an
intermediate stage in the evolution of the
pyramid. Its architect Imhotep built it in stages.
It was started as a square, solid mastaba, but a
series of extensions made it into a six stepped
pyramid with a rectangular ground-plan.

7. The Zoser complex is rectangular in plan
& the enclosure wall measuring 549m x
274m &rises to a height of 9m. The old
structure was an under ground burial
chamber, which was extended to a 25’ht
rectangular base. In the 2nd stage it grew
into a step pyramid with 4stages. Later 2
more stages were added to make it a 6
tiered pyramid. The entire complex is built
of tura limestone including the offering
chapel.

8. The bent pyramid was first built at Meydum, which collapsed. Subsequently another bent
pyramid was built at Dahsur, the picture which is given above. It was similar in construction
to other pyramids in that it was started with an angle of 52 degrees to the ground. About
half way into the construction the architect changed the angle to 43.5 degrees up to the
peak. It marks another stage in the evolution of the great pyramids.

9. • The Giza pyramid complex, on the outskirts of Cairo is considered to be the only
remaining monument of the 7 wonders of the ancient world. It consists of the great
pyramid of Cheops (Khufu), the pyramid of Chephren (Khafre), the smaller pyramid of
Mykerinus (Menkaure), the great Sphinx & other valley pyramids & offering chapels.
These 3 pyramids are a testimony to the engineering skills of the ancient Egyptians.
THE GREAT PYRAMIDS AT GIZA

10. • The Great pyramid of Cheops (Khufu) is the largest & about 760’ square in plan, rising
to a height of 480’, & covers an area of 13 acres. The 4 sides facing the cardinal points
of the compass are nearly equilateral triangles, making an angle of 52 deg. with the
ground. Of the 3 pyramids the original polished limestone casing is seen at the base of
the Cheops pyramid, the top of the Chephren pyramid, but not on the Mykerinus.

11. •The most astonishing fact in the construction of the pyramids is - how did the Egyptians
manage to raise these enormous blocks of stone, weighing 2.5 tons & measuring 8’x8’x8’
each, to a height of 480’ ?. One of the theories is that ramps were built of mud brick &
rubble on which the stone blocks were dragged on sledges to the required height. Another
theory suggests that first a step pyramid was carved out of an existing mountain to form
the core, around which the ramps were built in a concentric fashion to raise the stone
blocks to each stage & fill up the steps to form the pyramidical shape. Finally the pyramid
was finished off by adding a casing of tura limestone, as shown below.
•Though some of the pyramids indicate an accurate understanding of Pi, Egyptians were
incapable of arriving at this by calculation. It is possible that they had accidentally arrived at
it by counting the revolutions of a drum.

12. •The entrance on the north side is 47’ 6” above the ground (Z), opens into a passage that
descends downwards leading to the subterranean chamber, about 60’ below GL, which was
subsequently abandoned as a burial chamber. Midway from the descending passage an
ascending passage was cut into the rock that leveled off after a certain height, leading to
the Queens chamber, which was discarded. Finally a grand gallery of about 7’ width,
tapering by corbelled courses of stone to a width of 3’ 6” at a height of 28’, was built that
led to the Kings chamber, entirely constructed with granite. It measures 34’ 6”x 17’x 19’ ht,
is roofed by 5 enormous blocks of stone & capped by 2 stones in an embryonic arch. The
chamber is sealed off by stone portcullises, weighing 50 tons each, fitted into recesses cut
in the rock. An air shaft of 8”x8” connects to the exterior for the Ka (spirit) to escape.

13. • The section above clearly shows the descending corridor leading to the subterranean
chamber, the ascending corridor leading to the Queens chamber & the grand gallery
leading to the Kings chamber in the Great pyramid of Cheops.
• The section on the right is through the Kings chamber showing the roofing by massive
slabs of stone at 6 levels. The grand gallery & the ante chamber that would seal the
entrance by accommodating the portcullises can also be seen.

14. • The external casing of limestone has entirely disappeared in the Cheops pyramid,
excepting some parts around the base. The smaller pyramids of the nobility can be seen
in the background & Idu’s tomb can be seen in the fore ground.

15. • The funerary boat, which was excavated from the boat pits in 1954, is exhibited near
the Pyramid of Cheops.
• This boat is thought to have been used by the King during his lifetime & had carried the
Pharaoh’s body across the river Nile to the pyramid, on his death.
• The boat is 143’ long with 6 pairs of oars & contains a cabin that is completely paneled
with the royal insignia of the palm capital.

16. • The pyramid of Chephren (Khafre) is built next to the Great pyramid of Cheops, as he is
the son & successor. The Chephren pyramid is actually 10’ shorter & 46’ more narrow
at the base than the Cheops pyramid. But it looks taller than the great pyramid because
it is built on higher ground. The slope of the pyramid is 53 degrees.

17. • The top of the Chephren pyramid has retained the original limestone casing. There are 2
entrances located one above the other at a height of 50’, that lead to a large limestone
chamber through a descending passageway. The lower corridor directly below the upper
corridor joins after a distance & leads to the inner chamber which is lined with granite.

18. • This is a reconstructed
diagram of the pyramid of
Chephren with its causeway
connecting to the valley
temple, the pyramid of
Cheops & the surrounding
environs.

19. • To the east of the pyramid is located the Mortuary temple, containing the 5 typical
spaces such as the entrance hall, a columned court, 5 niches for the statues of the
Pharaoh, 5 storage chambers & an inner sanctuary. There were 52 life size statues of
Khafre that were plundered or removed.
• The pictures above show the statue of Khafre in the Cairo museum & the views of the
Valley temple that was constructed about 495 M away & connected to the mortuary
temple by a cause way.

20. • The pyramid of Mykerinos is the smallest
of the 3 royal pyramids at Giza & he is
believed to be the successor of Khafre.
• It is about 203’ tall with a base of 339’
square. He is believed to be the king who
alleviated the suffering of his people.

21. The great Sphinx is located N.E of Chephren’s valley
temple, which was the site of the quarry from which
the stones for the pyramids came. It was carved out
of the remaining spur of rock by his workers 4500
years ago. The sphinx is carved out of sandstone & its
body is 200’ long and 65’tall. The face is 13’ wide & it
was buried in the desert sand until a Pharaoh of the
5th dynasty excavated it. The pyramid is widely
considered to be a depiction of royal power of the
Pharaoh.

22. • The great temple of Ammon at Karnak is the grandest of all Egyptian temples & was
built by many kings starting from the 12th dynasty down to Ptolemy’s period. It has six
entrance pylons, which can be seen in this picture & was built from BC 1550 – 323.

23. • Like all Egyptian temples it
is approached through an
avenue of sphinxes, with a
pair of massive pylons
serving as the entrance.
The temple area is a vast
open air museum & is the
largest ancient religious
site in the world.
• The 1st entrance pylon is
15 m thick & is constructed
of mud bricks. The batter of
the pylon is characteristic of
Egyptian architecture.

24. •The pylons lead to a Great court measuring 338’ by 278’, which accommodates the shrine
of Seti II & the temple of Ramesses III. The central axis of the temple is oriented in the east-
west direction & the same is emphasized by 6 pairs of columns in the court. The 2nd pylon
leads to the Hypostyle hall, which was begun by Seti I & completed by Ramesses II. The 3rd
& 4th pylons lead to the sanctuary, which also contains the festival hall.

25. •The detail plan of the Ammon temple shows the 4 pylons leading to the sanctuary, which
has been mostly destroyed. However, the plan shows the 6 pairs of central columns in the
hypostyle hall with 126 (9 rows x 7 lines x 2 sides) shorter columns on either side.

26. • The top view shows the view of the
great court with the temple of Seti I.
• The bottom view shows another part
of the court with the north gate in
the middle.
• The row of columns near the
enclosure wall have bud capitals &
the 2nd pylon can be partially seen
on the right.

27. • The great hypostyle hall is about 320’ x 160’ internally & is roofed by enormous slabs of
stone, supported by 138 columns. The roof of the central avenue is raised to a height of
80’ with the columns itself rising to 69’ ht & having a diameter of 11’ 9” with lotus
bloom capitals. The side avenues are lower in order to admit light through clear storey
windows with the columns rising to 42’ ht and 9’ diameter, having lotus bud capitals.
The effect produced by this forest of columns is most awe-inspiring.

28. • The 2 views above show the columns of the central avenue with lotus bloom capitals &
the columns of the side avenues with lotus bud capitals. The clear storey windows
through which light was brought to the interior of the temple can also be seen.

29. • This picture clearly shows the clear storey windows made of stone located above the
roofing of the side avenues & the columns of the central avenue with hieroglyphics.

30. • Not much of the actual sanctuary
remains today as can be observed
from the picture on the top.
• However all the walls & columns
were covered with incised
inscriptions in colour giving the
history of the temple, the names of
the gods to whom it was dedicated &
the royal people who contributed to
its grandeur.
• The picture below shows the festival
hall of Thutmose III, which was
constructed during the last period.
The column capitals & shafts
resemble bundled reeds of papyrus
and look more elegant. They are also
considered to be the fore runners of
the fluted columns of the Greek.

31. • The awesome effect of perspective & monumental scale produced by the forest of
columns in the hypostyle hall can be observed from the picture on the left. The obelisk
of Queen Hatshepsut, located between the 4th & 5th pylon rises to height of 30m.

32. • This is the view of the Ammon temple from across the sacred lake that shows the
ruined condition of the sanctuary. The obelisks erected by Thutmose I & queen
Hatshepsut can also be seen.

33. • The great temple at Abu simbel is one of the most stupendous of Egyptian rock-cut
tombs. The impressive façade, 119’ wide & 100’ high, is formed as a pylon with 4
colossal statues of Ramesses II, who built it. The vestibule beyond has 8 Osiris pillars &
vividly colored wall relief's. Eight small chambers used for storage adjoin this vestibule.
Beyond it is a small hypostyle hall with 4 pillars that leads to the sanctuary having altar.

34. • The mortuary temple of Queen
Hatshepsut at Der – el Bahari is
quite interesting as it consists of 3
terraced courts cut out of the rock &
connected by a ramp.
• The upper court if flanked by 2
sacrificial halls, while on the central
axis is the sanctuary, cut deep into
the rock.
• The fluted columns with square
capitals are fore runners of the
Greek columns & the walls have fine
relief sculptures.

35. • The Temple at Edfu is the best preserved since it was built during the last period. The
massive entrance pylons with relief sculptures leading to the colonnaded great court &
the hypostyle hall with its façade of pillars can be seen in these 4 pictures.