The document discusses the use of systems concepts to facilitate organizational change in engineering companies. It describes how rich pictures and metaphors were used with engineers to: 1) Explore their current organizational situation and perceptions of change through rich pictures. 2) Help them envision their desired future state using metaphors. 3) Potentially shift their mindset from a purely technical perspective to one that also considers social and cultural aspects of change.

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Journal of Organizational Change
Management, Vol. 13 No. 2, 2000,
pp. 104-120. # MCB University
Press, 0953-4814
Engineering a paradigm shift?
An holistic approach to organisational
change management
Gillian Ragsdell
University of Paisley, Paisley, UK
Keywords Management, Engineers, Organizational change, Metaphors
Abstract Brings together some of the empirical findings from a series of action research
projects undertaken in a number of engineering companies. Systems concepts were employed with
engineers to assist organisational change. The key driver for each programme of change was the
implementation of a new company-wide strategy for increasing competitive edge in the open
market. In each instance, senior management recognised that, while their engineers possessed the
``hard'', technical skills to fulfil such a strategy, they did not all possess the ``soft'', people-related
skills to cope with the cultural aspects of the change. Systems concepts, such as rich pictures and
metaphors, were used to generate new perspectives that would stimulate a more holistic approach
to organisational change management.
Introduction
This paper is based on experience gained by the author during interventions
with different engineering organisations over a period of three years. General
common themes are drawn out in order to retain confidentiality of individual
companies. In each instance, the author's remit was to:
(1) stimulate creative thinking processes amongst engineers (working in
cohorts of about ten engineers); and
(2) support a culture change amongst engineers as part of a wider
programme of change that was embracing them.
The approach taken to the first objective has been discussed elsewhere by
emphasising some of the design considerations of the creative workshops that
were run with one particular organisation (Ragsdell, 1998). Hence, the focus of
this paper is on the second objective. Specifically, this paper shares some
insights into the practical value of using two selected systems concepts for
initiating a paradigm shift from a scientific stance to one that more openly
recognised ``people issues''.
Background
Organisational change may be seen differently by each organisational member.
For some people, change in their organisation might present the prospect of
facing new challenges, of gaining promotion and of furthering their career. For
others, it might present a reduction in responsibility, a loss of status or even an
enforced career break. Whatever the perception of organisational change, it
means entering new territory and ``playing the game by new rules''. A
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paradigm shift is called for and, whether it is welcomed or resisted, the
paradigm shift needs to be managed. Barker (1993, pp. 198-9) recognises that
``our perceptions of the world are strongly influenced by paradigms'' but goes
on to suggest that, from his observations, ``it is the outsider who usually creates
the new paradigm''. An approach that attempted to acknowledge and, more
importantly, work with the engineers' different perceptions of organisational
change forms the basis of this paper. Further, by employing a number of
systems concepts, creation of a new paradigm that was commensurable with
the external triggers for change was undertaken by the engineers rather than
created for them; that is, the ``insiders'', rather than the ``outsiders'', would create
the new paradigm. As a result of this empowering approach, some of the
anticipated resistance to change either did not emerge or was challenged early
in the change process before it had chance to become an insurmountable
obstacle.
The intention of any organisational change, one would expect, is to move the
organisation from its current state to a more desirable, improved state ± there is
a ``before'' and an ``after'' state. Especially in busy, task-oriented organisations it
can be tempting to focus on the ``after'' and to neglect the ``before'', and the value
of reflecting on questions such as ``What sort of organisation are we?'' and
``What are we doing?'' may be overlooked. However, it can be insightful to
explore the underpinning philosophy of the current state and to surface the
organisation's raison d'eÃtre before embarking on a change process; any
inherent assumptions that could inhibit the change process may then be
affirmed or denied. In this instance, ``rich pictures'' (Checkland, 1981; Checkland
and Scholes, 1990) were used to explore the ``before'' scenario and ``metaphors''
(Morgan, 1986; 1993)[1] were used to envisage the ``after''. Together these
systems concepts, rich pictures and metaphors, formed a process of exploration
through which groups of engineers could articulate their view of the current
organisational situation, and go on to visualise their desired future. While this
paper does not extend beyond the creation of their new vision, in reality the
engineers went on to formulate a detailed action plan using Ackoff's (1974;
1978) ``idealised design'' process, with which they could journey from ``where
they were'' to ``where they wanted to be''. In addition, the ``six thinking hats'' of
de Bono (1992) were used to revisit and review the plan in order to sustain the
change process.
The paper begins by identifying, in general, what constitutes a ``systems
concept'' and then converges to the chosen pair. For rich pictures and for
metaphors, an outline description is given. Next, there is an illustration of their
use and, finally, some reflections on the practical contribution of the concept to
organisational change management are shared. Aspects such as its user
friendliness, any shift in thinking that it brought and its future employability in
the workplace are discussed. While some of the reflections are based on
personal observations and experiences as the facilitator, other sources of
information such as formal evaluation sheets, review sessions and informal

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discussions were also sought. The paper closes with a summary of the potential
contribution of systems concepts in supporting a paradigm shift so often
necessary in organisational change.
So, having introduced the context of the paper and outlined its structure, we
continue by creating an awareness of the extensive selection of systems
concepts that could be used to aid organisational change management.
Systems concepts
For the practising manager, there is a plethora of systems tools from which to
choose. One way of organising such a wide range is to think of them in a
hierarchical fashion as shown below. Not only does the hierarchy give an
indication of the relative number of members at each level, but it also
highlights the interdependency of one level with another. This latter notion is
drawn out (see Figure 1) as a route of progression to the summit of the
hierarchy is suggested and as the level of concern of this paper is emphasised.
A newcomer to systems thinking would be wise to first become familiar with
systems concepts from the lowest level. This level provides an entry point for
gaining confidence in articulating thoughts on chosen systems by offering a
wide variety of terms, diagrams and models that are useful for exploring,
representing and communicating information about systems.
Taking a couple of examples with respect to terminology, one might start
talking about a system's ``boundary'' as a way of distinguishing the system
from its ``environment''. Reference might be made to components that are
``inside the boundary'' or ``outside'' of it. Equally, you may comment on the type
of ``feedback'' that is experienced from the ``output'' of a system to its ``input''.
There might be ``negative'', or a regulating form of feedback, as in the case of a
central heating system that aims to maintain a particular temperature despite
fluctuations in its wider environment. Alternatively, a system may show
evidence of ``positive'' feedback, or a reinforcing form of feedback, such as is
META - METHODOLOGIES
e.g. Total Systems Intervention
SYSTEMS METHODOLOGIES
e.g. Interactive Planning
METHODOLOGY COMPONENTS
e.g. Rich Picture, Dialectic Debate
TERMS
e.g. Boundary
DIAGRAMS
e.g. Systems Map
MODELS
e.g. Queuing Model
4
3
2
1Figure 1.
Hierarchy of systems
tools

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experienced on a savings account where a deposit accumulates interest. Terms
such as these can open up discussions that bring new understanding of
situations and afford a language through which it can be shared.
As well as the introduction to a new vocabulary, a newcomer will benefit
from becoming familiar with diagramming techniques. Developing and using
diagrams such as systems maps, influence diagrams and sign graphs can
bring clarity of situations and afford another medium for prompting dialogue.
The art of diagramming enables the transformation of confused thoughts
in our mind to two-dimensional images that can capture the interconnectedness
of issues and, additionally, express a situation in a clear, aesthetically
pleasing format. The old adage of ``a picture says a thousand words'' speaks
volumes.
In a similar way, using systems models (be they computer-based or
otherwise) to represent, in particular, quantitative aspects of a situation can be
informative and offer another avenue of exploration. Models can offer the
possibility of testing the ``what if?'' scenario without incurring the risks and
some of the constraints of the real world. So, for example, if we had a model that
represented the queuing behaviour of patients in our local hospital, we might
try increasing the number of doctors, nurses or beds in the model and see what
combination reduced the queuing time for patients to a minimum. However, the
necessity of then translating the findings from the model back into the real
world should not be forgotten!
Each systems term, diagram and model is put forward as an example of a
fundamental systems concept. As more of these low level concepts are used in
practice, the more holistic the analysis or exploration will become. Once these
concepts have been mastered, the systems thinker is able to progress up the
hierarchy.
At the next level up, the systems concepts are slightly more advanced and
implicitly rely on an understanding of the more fundamental ones. Each one of
these concepts could be used in isolation to generate an holistic process.
However, even though concepts such as rich pictures and dialectic debate can
be used as discrete components, their greatest benefit is gained from their role
in the parent methodology (Checkland's soft systems methodology (SSM) for
the former and Mason and Mitroff's strategic assumption surfacing and testing
(SAST) for the latter)[2] or as a part of a hybrid methodology[3]. The two levels
that have just been mentioned are the levels from which are drawn the selection
of systems concepts.
Once an individual is competent in the use of the basic systems concepts, it
is time to start bringing the notions together. This can be achieved through an
introduction to systems methodologies. In short, in the context of
organisational change management, a methodology would tend to be a process
that guided participants in improving a perceived problem situation.
Methodologies not only promote appropriate activity and action (what to do)
but also promote thinking around how to proceed, thus demonstrating a more
in-depth and less prescriptive approach than methods encourage. The third

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layer of the hierarchical arrangement comprises systems methodologies such
as SSM (Checkland, 1981) and critical systems heuristics (Ulrich, 1983). These
systems methodologies, along with the many others that have been developed,
have their own unique flavour and may call for different skills and traits from
their users. However, it can certainly be said that members of this level tend to
encompass a process of intervention that is implicitly or explicitly underpinned
by the concepts in the lower two levels.
In turn, the highest level embraces the three lower levels which could include
frameworks such as Flood and Jackson's (1991) and Flood's (1995) versions of
total systems intervention (TSI). Without going into detail, such meta-
methodologies strive to bring the philosophy of a critical approach to systems
thinking into the practical arena. In turn, TSI can be useful in guiding the
practice of systems methodologies such that there is an appropriate ``match''
between the situation in which you are intervening and the methodologies that
you employ. This is in preference to a non-critical stance in which there is a
danger that methodologies will be used from an uninformed and unreflective
stance.
So, having indicated the breadth of the systemic manager's tools and shared
some thoughts on the place of systems concepts in the author's hierarchy of
systems tools, we now move to the first systems concept that was employed,
that of the rich picture.
Rich pictures
Rich pictures were used with small groups of engineers to address the question
of ``Where are we now?'' It was not taken for granted that every engineer held a
common understanding of their current situation with his/her colleagues. As
this section shows, the employment of rich pictures drew out various
interpretations of the organisation at the start of the change programme and
proved to be a useful tool for increasing cohesion between the participating
engineers. However, first there will be a brief introduction to rich pictures both
as a component of SSM and as a stand-alone systems concept.
Description
While the engineers used rich pictures outside of its parent methodology, they
do actually form part of the early stages of Checkland's (1981) SSM process of
inquiry. SSM can be an effective approach for tackling ill-defined situations
where one cannot define ``the problem'' but suspects that all is not as good as it
could be and that things could be improved. SSM users are keen to learn about
the problem situation and are committed to gathering as much quantitative and
qualitative information as possible in the first instance. Formal and informal
means can be used in this process ± interviewing, observing, collecting minutes
of meetings, sending out questionnaires and engaging in casual conversations
could all play a role. The information is then expressed in a ``cartoon-like
expression'' ± that is, in a ``rich picture'' ± wherein a certain amount of poetic
licence is allowed. An holistic view is captured as aspects of structure, process

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and climate are represented. The methodology then proceeds through five other
stages that guide a cycle of learning. Ultimately, suggestions for improvement
that are culturally feasible and desirable to the participants will emerge.
As with any type of diagramming, developing rich pictures is a craft rather
than a science. As might be expected, different interventionists have been
recorded as adopting slightly different approaches to rich picturing. Indeed,
Bronte-Stewart (1999) has provided a useful summary of some of the different
stances that have been taken. While some users are fairly prescriptive about
the format that a rich picture should take, others advocate a much more fluid
style. The approach taken within this case study was, by comparison, quite
generic as will now be described [4].
Use of rich pictures
Each time a rich picture was drawn by a group of engineers, guidance was
sought from the principles of the parent methodology of SSM. In particular, the
principles of participation and learning were made apparent in the practical
arena[5], as is demonstrated in Figure 2.
The example-rich picture chosen for inclusion originated from a group of
engineers that came from different functional areas and from different layers of
their rigid hierarchical organisation. Much debate went on in the group before it
was realised that, despite their differences in context and authority, similar
work dilemmas were being experienced. The current situation was seen as one
in which engineers were being expected to cope with an ever-increasing number
Figure 2.
Example of a rich
picture

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of ``initiatives'' that senior management assigned to them. An inspired analogy
of knights running a race to their Lord's castle brought a strong metaphorical
slant to the rich picture (probably stronger than Checkland intended) and
stimulated refreshingly new topics of discussion. An extract from the rich
picture that captured this view of organisational life is shown below. While the
rich picture ``spoke for itself'' to the group, any rich picture is never so clear to an
audience. A brief explanation of some of the pertinent points now follows.
The hierarchical nature of the organisation has been emphasised through
the distancing of senior managers in their castle where melodious tunes are in
the air, the sun is always shining and the engineering flag is always proudly
flown. There is access to the castle via the drawbridge but whether the
drawbridge is up or down is at the discretion of senior management. In
addition, there seem to be two routes to the castle ± there is an easy, sign-posted
route, along which one can deposit the day jobs and ride the initiatives home
with access to adequate supplies along the way. Or there is a difficult route on
which one is heavily burdened with routine responsibilities of the day job, and
many obstacles that can scuttle the initiative. There are no resources en route ±
only diminishing ones from their baggage. Directions are unclear and there are
serious hazards to overcome. Travellers on the easy route tend to be spotted by
the senior managers and are welcomed into the castle. However, they create a
large dust cloud that obscures those on the hard route from view. Hence, the
efforts of travellers on the hard route often go unnoticed; sometimes they do not
reach the castle at all, but fall by the wayside.
Other messages, whether consciously or subconsciously captured by the
engineers, can no doubt be ``read'' in the rich picture. However, we must be
careful as observers, rather than participants, not to impose our understanding
too heavily on the output of this process ± it is its value to the group's
understanding of the current situation that is of prime importance.
Contribution of rich pictures to organisational change management
Much of the contribution of rich pictures to organisational change management
arose out of the recognition that the process of rich picturing is more important
than the actual rich picture that is produced. The discussion and debate that
surround the drawing activities are the key to surfacing the current paradigm.
While a rich picture is a useful reminder of the situation, it is important to
remember that it is only accurate at the moment of development and only for
those people who were involved. In short, rich pictures should not be divorced
from the context in which they were drawn.
The rich picture proved to be useful as a third party through which to
mediate between the engineers and to bring some of the more ``tricky'' issues to
the surface in a light-hearted but respected manner. Many issues that were
raised through the rich picturing process would not have been mentioned
during a face-to-face discussion. The medium of drawings, rather than speech,
prompted more honest and much deeper inquiry than would have otherwise
been the case with these engineers.

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In the same vein, the relaxed atmosphere and openness to learning that rich
pictures bring meant that the hierarchical nature of the organisations was
dissipated during the group sessions. Senior managers were relieved of some of
the pressures that existed in their everyday role. During rich picturing, they
were no longer expected to ``have all the answers'' and to provide strong
leadership for their subordinates. This exercise provided the forum in which it
was acceptable, and indeed encouraged, for senior managers to seek
clarification and advice without assuming a submissive stance and without
arousing suspicion among other participants. Once again, in contrast to their
``normal'' working environment, this type of behaviour from the higher echelons
would ordinarily have been quite unnerving for engineers and a sign of
weakness for senior figures.
Besides the observations discussed above, adherence to the principles of
participation and learning, in particular, unquestionably brought about a more
emphatic change that would smooth any planned organisational change. At the
start of the session, few of the engineers were familiar with each other;
previously they had merely been ``names in the internal telephone directory''.
By the end of the session, genuine teams of engineers had formed whose
relationships would bridge their geographical separation and functional
boundaries in the future. As well as seeing a new side to their own and other's
talents in creative thinking there was a much deeper understanding amongst
the group of one another's perspectives. There was an appreciation of where
each person ``was coming from'', and a more overt sensitivity of the qualitative
aspects of their organisational life.
User friendliness
There is a learning curve to be followed with rich pictures as with any new tool;
a brief formal presentation of their origins and role in the wider methodology of
SSM soon launched the engineers into action. Some took to it like ``ducks to
water'' while there were initial hesitations from others who declared ``they could
not draw'' and were eager to volunteer another person in the group to take the
pen! Others would protest saying ``this is what my children do at playschool''.
However, with a little coaxing, all did take a pen and begin to draw. With
further coaxing and reinforcement that there was no need for artistic expertise
and that everyone can indeed contribute, there was soon a noticeable increase
in momentum in the process.
The main requirement of the facilitator during the rich picturing process
was to try and move these highly skilled, technically biased individuals out of
their cause-effect type mentality. Additionally, to move them out of an ``expert
mode'' with a focus on finding ``solutions to problems'' rather than ``improving
problem situations'' such as Checkland's (1981) SSM calls for. Coupled with
overtones of a blame culture, the expert mode often led to a dominant
functionalist perspective in the early moments. Strong facilitation skills were
required to move them into a more interpretive stance in which exploration
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With just a one-hour time slot from its introduction to its conclusion, time
did not appear to be on the side of the process. However, it was surprising what
rich, rich pictures were achieved in that time! In most cases, it took the full time
allocation to compile the basic picture; in some instances there was probably
sufficient momentum to have carried on for another hour to tidy up the
aesthetics of the rich picture and to seek confirmation of more detailed
understanding amongst the group. With hindsight, though, it had been best to
close down activities earlier rather that later, since the memory of a process
``fizzling out'' was not one that I wanted to leave the engineers with.
Shift in thinking
The benefits of rich picturing being underpinned by learning and participation
brought about new understanding and the beginning of a paradigm shift
amongst all the engineers who took part. In addition, there were some new
discoveries amongst senior managers who had not participated in the process
but who, at the participants' invitation, had viewed the finished rich pictures.
All agreed that the pictures had stimulated discussions on topics that would
not normally be raised in a ``task oriented'' engineering world. So, some of the
typical boundaries of engineering were pushed back and new territories were
explored.
The surfacing of less obvious similarities and differences in the way
engineers worked, thought and formed expectations of their company was a
constant surprise for participants, Again, this was information that would not
have naturally come to light but, once it had, proved to be an important trigger
for redefining their frame of reference. Every engineer said that they had
realised something about their organisation's structure and processes that had
not occurred to them before. Less appeared to be learned about the cultural
aspects of their companies ± the prevailing uncertainty might have inhibited
their openness on the subject. Another explanation is that organisational
culture per se was too new a concept for them to fully articulate their
perspectives on it.
Future employability in the workplace
One of the measures of the effectiveness of rich pictures in aiding
organisational change is whether they continue to be used meaningfully when
the external facilitator has left. There could be many obstacles to their inclusion
in day-to-day activities. Current evidence shows that rich pictures are
continuing to be used in the companies under discussion and, even more
pleasing, they are being shared with internal and external clients. An example
of this is an organisation that is very proud to display a framed pair of rich
pictures, entitled ``Them by us'' and ``Us by them'', which originated from
dialogue between an external customer and the engineering department. It
had been perceived that the situation between the two groups could be
improved ± while the rich pictures were developed independently by each
group, they served as a starting point for discussion when all parties joined up

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for an ``away day'' to improve matters. This is a testament to the power of rich
pictures and the proactiveness of the company to utilise their new vehicle for
inquiry.
As was indicated during the description of the use of the rich picture,
sometimes the engineers drifted into the use of metaphors during rich
picturing. While metaphors can indeed invigorate the development of rich
pictures they can also promote systems thinking in their own right. It is to the
use of metaphors that the discussion now turns.
Metaphors
The question of ``Where do we want to be?'' was predominantly addressed
through systems metaphors from the second level of the hierarchy but with a
supporting role from idealised design. The complementary way in which this
worked in practice meant there were spin-offs as the synergy between the two
concepts was exploited. In the following section, it is solely the role of
metaphors that is presented. First, there is an introduction to the use of
metaphors for organisational analysis with particular reference to the seminal
work of Morgan (1986). The transition to an emphasis on the use of metaphors
in organizational development is then highlighted through Morgan's (1993)
more recent work, before describing the employment of metaphors with one
particular group of engineers.
Description
For a number of decades metaphors have been used to analyse and explain
organisational behaviour. A single metaphor can be used to create a compact
and distinctive description of the complex life within an organisation; it might
generate images that reflect parts of the organisation. For instance, Morgan
(1986) was writing of organisations as though they were such things as psychic
prisons, organisms and machines. His seminal work showed how eight distinct
metaphors brought new learning and understanding of organisations but
admitted to the partial view that was conveyed by each metaphor's emphasis
on particular aspects of the organisation. The metaphors and their particular
emphases are summarised in Table I.
Table I.
Metaphors and
emphases
Metaphor Emphasis
Machine Standardization, closed systems
Organisms Organisational needs and environmental relationships
Brain Information processing, learning and intelligence
Cultures Norms, values and rituals
Political metaphor Different interests, conflict and power
Psychic prisons Psychodynamic and ideological aspects of organisations
Flux and transformation Shaping nature of organization at a societal level
Instruments of domination Understanding organisations from perspective of an exploited
group

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Using a range of metaphors is often a much richer process than relying on a
single one to tell the whole organisational story. There is then the possibility of
generating images that reflect the whole of the organisation and not merely a
slice of life therein; that is, a more holistic approach. This acknowledgement,
coupled with the move to using metaphors for organisational development
rather than organisational analysis has raised the value of metaphors for
practising managers as is now discussed in the context of Morgan's (1993)
process of imaginization.
While employment of metaphors for developing plausible explanations of
organisational behaviour continues to be a valuable managerial skill, it is
rather a static approach. Morgan has emerged as a major proponent of more
dynamic metaphorical exploration. Through his process of imaginization,
Morgan (1993) uses metaphors as a vehicle for organisational change
interventions. Relying on rich metaphorical descriptions, imaginization aims to
help problem managers reframe their problems and to look forward to
experiencing new insights. Imaginization aims to develop alternative ways of
thinking about organisations so that alternative management styles and
organisational structures can be introduced. His belief is that it is not
productive to try ``F F F new styles of organization and management while
continuing to think in old ways'' (Morgan, 1993, p. vi).
Morgan has recognised that organisations have changed ± they are ``not
what they used to be''. The traditional view of organisations as stable, regular
arrangements no longer suffices in current times when adaptability and
flexibility are called for. As he says, we are
F F F moving into an era where the ability to understand, facilitate, and encourage processes of
self-organization will become a key competence (Morgan, 1993, p. v).
Imaginization aims to develop alternative ways of thinking about
organisations so that replacement management styles and organisational
structures can be introduced. Morgan offers the process of imaginization as a
key managerial tool to assist managers in their bid to face the challenges of
such an era; to overcome the ``old way'' of thinking so that ``F F F new styles of
organization and management'' (Morgan, 1993, p. vi) can be introduced. In
short, metaphors could be a tool for promoting a paradigm shift.
Use of metaphors
While metaphors could equally be used to explore the situation as is, the
groups of engineers in the group were invited to use metaphors as a means of
visualising and expressing their desired organisation[6]. They were to neglect
their current position and use metaphors to make a quantum leap to where they
would like to be.
In keeping with Morgan (1993, p. 293), the author was keen to encourage the
groups to experiment with their own metaphors for finding and creating
meaning, rather than to determine the metaphor to be used. In a short while, a
metaphor would ``resonate'' with a group that would bring meaningful change
proposals for participants.

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An example of a metaphor that one group incubated and hatched was that of
a ``voyage to the moon''. Those four words conjured up an image of their ideal
organisation; a reasonably holistic view (with attention to structures, processes
and cultures) was captured for them. The same metaphor can express different
interpretations for different groups. In this instance, the group perceived that a
voyage to the moon reflected all, and more, of the following list of
characteristics:
``VOYAGE TO THE MOON''
well planned
sufficient resources
no U-turns
good partnerships
each person with own specialism
known roles
a ``proper'' team
respect for each team member's contribution
no free loaders
an exciting adventure
committed support back at base
pulling together
a few front people of high profile
people behind the scenes get their share of recognition
new technology
confidence in the project
``once-in-a-lifetime'' experience
Many of these characteristics can be translated directly into the image of
the organisation that this group of engineers wanted to create. The metaphor
of the voyage to the moon encapsulated their shared vision for their
organisation.
Contribution of metaphors to organisational change management
Primarily, generating images via metaphors enabled the participating
engineers to contribute to the organisational change by assisting them in
articulating what it was that they desired. Personal hopes and expectations can
often be uncomfortable to share and difficult to express in a typically
unemotional environment such as these engineers operated in. The holistic
nature of metaphors conveyed every aspect of their desired organisation ±
sometimes intentionally, other times subconsciously ± from the physical nature
to more intangible aspects such as the value system and culture that they
wanted to adopt. The metaphor captured the whole picture for them and
afforded a language through which to disclose their aspirations.

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Another important contribution of this systems concepts was that, as with
the rich picture, the metaphorical explorations took direct attention away from
the participants and gave a third party through which to channel emotional
energy. Thus, most inhibitions and apprehensions were dissolved and a freer
input of ideas led to an exciting process in which quantum leaps in imagination
could be taken.
User friendliness
Discussion of the rich picturing process suggested that the engineers slipped
unprompted and (too) readily into metaphorical analysis. It should therefore
not be too surprising to learn of the ease with which the engineers readily used
metaphors to aid their thinking surrounding their utopian organisation. It
seemed relatively natural to adopt a new, common language of metaphors and
a distraction from the pessimism in which they had been holding their
organisation.
Having stressed the ease with which the engineers tackled the exploration,
the hermeneutic nature of the exercise and resultant lack of a formal path
through the process meant that they were inclined to seek clarification and
reassurance from the facilitator more often than during rich picturing. ``Are we
on the right lines?'' was regularly heard. The conceptual nature of both the
process and the outcome seemed to necessitate a strong mentoring role from
the facilitator as the engineers' confidence level demanded an extra boost in the
move away from right answers.
Shift in thinking
It was interesting to note the different type of shift in thinking that the use of
metaphors had brought. It cannot be denied that, en masse, the groups had
formulated and articulated a new frame of reference, which they wanted to
adopt. However, whether this was a ``shift'' would be difficult to prove since this
was their first opportunity to express their desired future. Their shared vision
might have been subconsciously in their minds from the outset; metaphors
might not have aided the creation of that vision but been a vehicle through
which to express it. The significant change that metaphors appeared to trigger
was as follows. While rich picturing tended to bring a shift in thinking
regarding, in the main, the content of their perspective, metaphors brought a
bigger shift in thinking regarding the processes that determined the engineers'
perspectives. Reflections on the exercise drew out the power and novelty of the
process, the benefits of sharing each other's dreams and the value of building
on one another's thoughts. There was an appreciation that the metaphors had
moved the engineers into another paradigm and they could choose to revisit it
as they wished.
Future employability in the workplace
Even though it has been stressed how comfortable the participants felt with
metaphors in relation to the rich picturing, there were some engineers who

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found it more difficult to use metaphors explicitly as a concept in isolation.
This could have been as a result of the different question that had been posed ±
``What metaphor best expresses your ideal organisation?'' ± or a consequence of
the conceptual nature of the process.
One suspects that the lack of a tangible output from imaginization makes
metaphors somewhat less attractive in goal-oriented organisations, which need
``something'' to show for the time that has been devoted to an exercise. On that
basis, there is limited optimism that many of these engineering companies will
use metaphors without an external trigger. While metaphors had been
respected as another powerful systems concept that could promote
management of organisational change early indications suggest that the
engineers will more readily use them for visualising engineering plant than for
more conceptual frameworks such as their wider organisation. In doing so, this
will play to the ``hard'' side of engineers rather than develop their ``softer'' side
since there will be more opportunity for tangible components to dominate at,
sadly, the expense of intangible aspects.
Having shared some experiences of using metaphors, the next section
summarises the contribution that these two systems concepts made, as part of
a wider intervention programme, in promoting and sustaining a paradigm shift
in these engineering organisations.
Conclusions
At the outset of this paper reference was made to the necessity for a paradigm
shift to be made by members of an organisation that was going through
change. Traditionally, this paradigm shift has been designed by outsiders and
has been imposed on organisational members. This is not in keeping with the
empowering philosophy that many organisations are putting forward today.
However, there is a need for new tools and techniques that will enable
organisational members (insiders) to decide on their desired paradigm shift and
to start managing the subsequent change process. Rich pictures and metaphors
have been introduced in this paper as systems concepts that might be included
in that collection of tools and techniques. Their practical value has been
described in this paper based on the contribution that they made to
organisational change management in a number of engineering companies.
From these studies it is clear that the major contributions of rich pictures and
metaphors have been to:
(1) Provoke discussion of organisational topics not generally addressed in
everyday work life. By ignoring some organisational issues, whether
intentionally or unintentionally, we are being selective over the extent
and nature of issues that are faced in a change programme. This can
lead to some parties feeling excluded or issues being left dangerously on
the ``back burner''. The nature of rich picturing and using metaphors
calls for virtually no specialist skills. Hence, they are one means of
including many parties in a process of ensuring that as many issues as

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possible are brought to light. Then, and only then, should it be decided
whether it is desirable, or indeed possible, to tackle specific issues.
(2) Offer a third party through which a process of mediation can take place.
Coupled with the first benefit of rich pictures and metaphors, they can
take away some of the confrontational element that is often associated
with organisational change management. Personal challenging can be
redirected through the medium of the process ± the picture or the
language of metaphor ± and thus convert some of the tensions and
strains of change into constructive debate.
(3) Trigger a greater awareness of engineers as people and suppress any
over-emphasis on technical skills. Some organisations are inclined to view
their members only in their functional roles and forget that they possess
other attributes outside of a particular specialist role. This can mean
that a lot of human potential is not being tapped ± this is ineffective for
the organisation and can be unsatisfying for the individuals involved.
The engineers involved in the processes of rich picturing and metaphors
were able to step outside of their stereo ± typical engineering role and
``wear a different hat''. A ``softer'' side was allowed to emerge and a more
rounded view of one another was appreciated.
(4) Promote team building and meaningful relationships amongst engineers.
Building on the last point, attention to the human side of organisations
is often compromised and personal interactions often neglected when
there is constant pressure to meet performance targets. However, the
relatively short time that these engineers spent working with rich
pictures and metaphors enabled old relationships to be rekindled
and new ones to be formed. In turn one would anticipate that this
would have an effect on the overall working environment of the
companies.
(5) Encourage engineers to participate in and take responsibility for their
organisational design. The whole stance of this paper has been towards
empowering insiders of an organisation to create their own new
paradigm rather than wait for an outsider to create one for them. The
way in which rich pictures and metaphors were used with these groups
of engineers gave them the opportunity to do just that ± to take out of
their functional roles and to take a systemic view of their current
organisation and of their ideal organisation. Preliminary results show
that, in doing just that, there has not in fact been the resistance to change
that would ordinarily have been expected.
These five contributions are among the range of benefits that using systems
concepts can bring to organisational change. But this paper does not claim to
tell the whole story for there are many other practical and theoretical issues
that could be explored. For instance, there are issues in relation to the debate on
``multimethodology'' (see, for example, Mingers and Gill, 1997) that is fast

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gaining momentum. The question of ``Why did this combination of systems
concepts `work'?'' could have been addressed. Alternatively, the focus could
have been on the philosophical underpinnings of the type of management
practice that I was advocating, that is on critical systems thinking in the guise
of ``critical creativity'' (see, for example, Flood and Jackson, 1991 or Ragsdell,
1997a; 1997b). The sharing of this practical experience is offered as an example
that systems concepts do have an important role in organisational change
management and as a possible lead in to further academic debate on some of
the associated issues.
Notes
1. The author recognises that there are many more references for these concepts ±
introductory examples only have been given.
2. Flood and Jackson (1991) provide a useful summary of a range of systems methodologies,
including SSM and SAST.
3. Here, reference is being made to a current debate in systems circles that goes under the
heading of ``multi-technology'' (for some of the core arguments, see Mingers and Gill, 1997).
In short, debate is focused on the mixing of components of well-established methodologies
as a means of creating ``new'' and unique methodologies that can more effectively tackle
problem situations.
4. The reasons why this was the case are the basis of another research agenda for the
author.
5. The cultural principle of SSM was initially intrinsic to the process as the engineers stayed
within their current paradigm. However, as is noted later, their established culture began
to change as a result of the process of rich picturing. The remaining, unmentioned
principle of SSM (according to Flood and Jackson, 1991) that stresses a conscious transition
between the ``two modes of thinking'' was not relevant, since the engineers were staying in
the ``real world'' throughout the exercise.
6. Rather than working with a metaphor that reflected their current position and would
promote incremental changes, the influence of idealised design guided the author to strive
for greater advances in creative thinking.
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