Chapter 3 Frameworks for Diagnosing Organizations What” to ChangeWilheminaRossi174
Chapter 3 Frameworks for Diagnosing Organizations “What” to Change in an Organization
There is nothing as practical as a good theory.
—Kurt Lewin
Chapter Overview
· Change leaders need to understand both the process of making organizational modifications (the how to change as outlined in Chapter 2) and the ability to diagnose organizational problems and take actions to change an organization.
· Determining what needs changing requires clear organizational frameworks. Change leaders need to comprehend the complexity and interrelatedness of organizational components: how analysis needs to occur at different organizational levels, and how organizations and their environments will shift over time, requiring further analysis and action.
· This chapter outlines several frameworks that one can use to analyze organizational dynamics:
1. Nadler and Tushman’s Congruence Model balances the complexity needed for organizational analysis, and the simplicity needed for action planning and communication, and provides the over-arching structure for this book;
2. Sterman’s Systems Dynamics Model views the nonlinear and interactive nature of organizations;
3. Quinn’s Competing Values Model provides a framework that bridges individual and organizational levels of analysis;
4. Greiner’s Phases of Organizational Growth Model highlights organizational changes that will—inevitably—occur over time in organizations, from their infancy to maturity; this model is particularly useful for entrepreneurs who sometimes need to be reminded that change needs to occur, even in their small start-up organizations; and
5. Stacey’s Complexity Theory is introduced to highlight the interactive, time-dependent nature of organizations and their evolutionary processes.
• Each framework aids a change agent in diagnosing a particular kind of organizational issue and suggests remedies for what ails an institution.
In Chapter 2, we considered the process of change (the Change Path). In this chapter, we deal with what aspects of an organization to change. Differentiating the process from the content is sometimes confusing, but the rather unusual example below will highlight the difference.
Bloodletting is a procedure that was performed to help alleviate the ills of mankind. . . . In the early 19th century, adults with good health from the country districts of England were bled as regularly as they went to market; this was considered to be preventive medicine.1
The practice of bloodletting was based on a set of assumptions about how the body worked—bloodletting would diminish the quantity of blood in the system and thus lessen the redness, heat, and swelling that was occurring. As a result, people seemed to get better after this treatment—but only in the short term. The reality was that they were weakened by the loss of blood. As we know today, the so-called science of bloodletting was based on an inaccurate understanding of the body. It is likely that bloodletting professionals worked to imp ...
Chapter 3 Frameworks for Diagnosing Organizations What” to Change.docxchristinemaritza
Chapter 3 Frameworks for Diagnosing Organizations “What” to Change in an Organization
There is nothing as practical as a good theory.
—Kurt Lewin
Chapter Overview
· Change leaders need to understand both the process of making organizational modifications (the how to change as outlined in Chapter 2) and the ability to diagnose organizational problems and take actions to change an organization.
· Determining what needs changing requires clear organizational frameworks. Change leaders need to comprehend the complexity and interrelatedness of organizational components: how analysis needs to occur at different organizational levels, and how organizations and their environments will shift over time, requiring further analysis and action.
· This chapter outlines several frameworks that one can use to analyze organizational dynamics:
1 Nadler and Tushman’s Congruence Model balances the complexity needed for organizational analysis, and the simplicity needed for action planning and communication, and provides the over-arching structure for this book;
2 Sterman’s Systems Dynamics Model views the nonlinear and interactive nature of organizations;
3 Quinn’s Competing Values Model provides a framework that bridges individual and organizational levels of analysis;
4 Greiner’s Phases of Organizational Growth Model highlights organizational changes that will—inevitably—occur over time in organizations, from their infancy to maturity; this model is particularly useful for entrepreneurs who sometimes need to be reminded that change needs to occur, even in their small start-up organizations; and
5 Stacey’s Complexity Theory is introduced to highlight the interactive, time-dependent nature of organizations and their evolutionary processes. • Each framework aids a change agent in diagnosing a particular kind of organizational issue and suggests remedies for what ails an institution.
In Chapter 2, we considered the process of change (the Change Path). In this chapter, we deal with what aspects of an organization to change. Differentiating the process from the content is sometimes confusing, but the rather unusual example below will highlight the difference.
Bloodletting is a procedure that was performed to help alleviate the ills of mankind. . . . In the early 19th century, adults with good health from the country districts of England were bled as regularly as they went to market; this was considered to be preventive medicine.1
The practice of bloodletting was based on a set of assumptions about how the body worked—bloodletting would diminish the quantity of blood in the system and thus lessen the redness, heat, and swelling that was occurring. As a result, people seemed to get better after this treatment—but only in the short term. The reality was that they were weakened by the loss of blood. As we know today, the so-called science of bloodletting was based on an inaccurate understanding of the body. It is likely that bloodletting professionals worked to improve ...
Change ModelsDifferent models have been developed to help plan f.docxsleeperharwell
Change Models
Different models have been developed to help plan for and implement change. Change has been studied from the conceptual approach, such as "what," as well as from the process approach of "how."
The conceptual models of change usually concentrate on content and strategic initiatives. On the other hand, process models focus on the sequence of events necessary to effect organizational change by focusing on the stages and steps of implementation.
Develop Contextual Issues of the Change
Once the need for change and the cause for implementation have been established, the contextual issues of the change can be developed to help evaluate the extent of change that an organization can implement with the resources available. Factors to consider during this process include:
· Readiness of the organization
· Culture of the organization
· Systems issues
· Amount of resistance that might be involved
Communicate the Vision to Employees
Once the vision for the change has been developed, the leaders should communicate the vision to employees. The vision should be clearly articulated, including how the change will impact the employees. This can be difficult when the change will have a negative impact on employees, but it is better for employees to understand the change than to be in the dark.
When change is implemented and individuals' employment is affected, it may be best for leaders to hold off and not communicate any reductions in force until it is necessary for the employees to know. Any change in employee status can be hard for everyone, including the employees who are staying. Both groups of employees need careful communication and support while going through the transitions.
Plan Strategies and Develop Criteria
Once the reason for the change has been communicated, implementation strategies should be considered. This is an opportunity for the leadership to involve the workforce as the workforce can be instrumental in developing the implementation strategies. As the implementation strategies are being formed, how the outcomes would be measured should be considered. How will an organization know when the change is finished and successful? If the organization includes outcome measures (e.g., increase in market share and decrease in costs) in its planning, it will help those implanting the change to know what constitutes success.
Implement and Monitor
Change can then be implemented, monitored, and managed to ensure that sequential steps are taken and continuous feedback is available.
While there are several steps for managing and monitoring change, most change processes will follow this type of model. On the other hand, conceptual models of change emphasize the mental constructs and sense making of the change
Change Process Models
There are several change models that can be used to implement a change effort. The process models are often used because they provide leaders and organizations with a sequential approach to cha.
In a few sentences summarize the key takeaway from chapter 3, 4 & MalikPinckney86
In a few sentences summarize the key takeaway from chapter 3, 4 & 5 then continue to answer the following:
1. What is our personal abyss, and according to Haldeman, what are we afraid of?
2. How have recent events placed your organization at an impasse? Could you or your organizations have been more prepared for the impasse? In what sense? Which people and organizations are most likely to be unprepared and have the hardest time?
3. Think of and ask a discussion question back to your cohort group.
Please see Chapters Below
CHAPTER THREE
Change Process and Models
William J. Rothwell, Roland L. Sullivan, Taesung Kim, Jong Gyu Park, and Wesley E. Donahue
A model for change is a simplified representation of the general steps in initiating and carrying out a change process. It is rooted in solid research and theory. Managers and consultants, when demonstrating the competencies of an OD practitioner, are well-advised to rely on a model for change as a compass to show them the direction in which to lead the change effort and change process. In this chapter, we review numerous models to guide the change process.
AN OVERVIEW OF KEY MODELS FOR ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE The change models we share rely primarily on a normative, reeducative, and innovative approach to behavioral change. They are (1) the traditional action research model, (2) Appreciative Inquiry, and (3) an evolving view of the action research model. The Traditional Action Research Model Action research has long been the foundation for many change efforts. It is properly regarded as a philosophy, a model, and a process. Like any change model, action research is a simplified representation of the complex activities that 42
CHANGE PROCESS AND MODELS 43 should occur in a change effort if it is to be participative, engaging, and empowering for those affected by it. The model serves as a compass to consultants facilitating change. While it does not tell consultants, managers, or workers exactly what to do in a paint-by-the-numbers fashion, it provides a process whereby the consultant and client can jointly inquire and decide what change is required. It helps consultants track where they are and where they are going. While the action research model has been depicted in different ways, the depictions of it share common characteristics. Figure 3.1 illustrates a general model of action research. Action research may also be understood as a process of continuing events and actions. In a classic description, French and Bell (1990) defined this interpretation of action research as "The process of systematically collecting research data about an ongoing system relative to some objective, goal, or need of that system; feeding these data back into the system; taking actions by altering selected variables within the system based both on the data and on hypotheses; and evaluating the results of actions by collecting more data" (99). One way to think about the traditional action re ...
A theoretical framework oforganizational changeGabriele .docxstandfordabbot
A theoretical framework of
organizational change
Gabriele Jacobs
Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam,
The Netherlands
Arjen van Witteloostuijn
University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium, Tilburg University, Tilburg,
The Netherlands, and Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands, and
Jochen Christe-Zeyse
Fachhochschule der Polizei Brandenburg, Brandenburg, Germany
Abstract
Purpose – Organizational change is a risky endeavour. Most change initiatives fall short on their
goals and produce high opportunity and process costs, which at times outweigh the content benefits of
organizational change. This paper seeks to develop a framework, offering a theoretical toolbox to
analyze context-dependent barriers and enablers of organizational change. Starting from an
organizational identity perspective, it aims to link contingency-based approaches, such as
environmental scan, SWOT and stakeholder analysis, with insights from organizational behaviour
research, such as knowledge sharing and leadership.
Design/methodology/approach – The framework is informed by long-lasting field research into
organizational change in an international policing environment. The theories in the framework are
selected from the perspective of field validity in two ways; they were chosen because the topics
covered by these theories emerged as relevant during the field research and therefore it can be
expected they have applicability to the field. The authors’ insights and suggestions are summarised in
13 propositions throughout the text.
Findings – The analysis provides a clear warning that organizational change is more risky and
multifaceted than change initiators typically assume. It is stressed that the external environment and
the internal dynamics of organizations co-determine the meaning of managerial practices. This implies
that cure-all recipes to organizational change are bound to fail.
Originality/value – This paper makes an ambitious attempt to cross disciplinary boundaries in the
field of organizational change research to contribute to a more comprehensive and holistic
understanding of change processes by integrating perspectives that focus on the internal context and
the external environment of organizations.
Keywords Organizational change, Contingency analysis, Culture, Leadership, Environmental scan,
Police, Public security, Public management, International environment, Costs of change, Policing
Paper type Research paper
Organizational change as a risky strategy
Organizational change is omnipresent, being the raison d’être of the consultancy
industry (Sorge and van Witteloostuijn, 2004). Modern organization sciences have
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/0953-4814.htm
The authors would like to thank the project partners for their contribution to this work. This
research is partially funded by the European Commission in the context of the COMPOSITE
projec.
Chapter 3 Frameworks for Diagnosing Organizations What” to ChangeWilheminaRossi174
Chapter 3 Frameworks for Diagnosing Organizations “What” to Change in an Organization
There is nothing as practical as a good theory.
—Kurt Lewin
Chapter Overview
· Change leaders need to understand both the process of making organizational modifications (the how to change as outlined in Chapter 2) and the ability to diagnose organizational problems and take actions to change an organization.
· Determining what needs changing requires clear organizational frameworks. Change leaders need to comprehend the complexity and interrelatedness of organizational components: how analysis needs to occur at different organizational levels, and how organizations and their environments will shift over time, requiring further analysis and action.
· This chapter outlines several frameworks that one can use to analyze organizational dynamics:
1. Nadler and Tushman’s Congruence Model balances the complexity needed for organizational analysis, and the simplicity needed for action planning and communication, and provides the over-arching structure for this book;
2. Sterman’s Systems Dynamics Model views the nonlinear and interactive nature of organizations;
3. Quinn’s Competing Values Model provides a framework that bridges individual and organizational levels of analysis;
4. Greiner’s Phases of Organizational Growth Model highlights organizational changes that will—inevitably—occur over time in organizations, from their infancy to maturity; this model is particularly useful for entrepreneurs who sometimes need to be reminded that change needs to occur, even in their small start-up organizations; and
5. Stacey’s Complexity Theory is introduced to highlight the interactive, time-dependent nature of organizations and their evolutionary processes.
• Each framework aids a change agent in diagnosing a particular kind of organizational issue and suggests remedies for what ails an institution.
In Chapter 2, we considered the process of change (the Change Path). In this chapter, we deal with what aspects of an organization to change. Differentiating the process from the content is sometimes confusing, but the rather unusual example below will highlight the difference.
Bloodletting is a procedure that was performed to help alleviate the ills of mankind. . . . In the early 19th century, adults with good health from the country districts of England were bled as regularly as they went to market; this was considered to be preventive medicine.1
The practice of bloodletting was based on a set of assumptions about how the body worked—bloodletting would diminish the quantity of blood in the system and thus lessen the redness, heat, and swelling that was occurring. As a result, people seemed to get better after this treatment—but only in the short term. The reality was that they were weakened by the loss of blood. As we know today, the so-called science of bloodletting was based on an inaccurate understanding of the body. It is likely that bloodletting professionals worked to imp ...
Chapter 3 Frameworks for Diagnosing Organizations What” to Change.docxchristinemaritza
Chapter 3 Frameworks for Diagnosing Organizations “What” to Change in an Organization
There is nothing as practical as a good theory.
—Kurt Lewin
Chapter Overview
· Change leaders need to understand both the process of making organizational modifications (the how to change as outlined in Chapter 2) and the ability to diagnose organizational problems and take actions to change an organization.
· Determining what needs changing requires clear organizational frameworks. Change leaders need to comprehend the complexity and interrelatedness of organizational components: how analysis needs to occur at different organizational levels, and how organizations and their environments will shift over time, requiring further analysis and action.
· This chapter outlines several frameworks that one can use to analyze organizational dynamics:
1 Nadler and Tushman’s Congruence Model balances the complexity needed for organizational analysis, and the simplicity needed for action planning and communication, and provides the over-arching structure for this book;
2 Sterman’s Systems Dynamics Model views the nonlinear and interactive nature of organizations;
3 Quinn’s Competing Values Model provides a framework that bridges individual and organizational levels of analysis;
4 Greiner’s Phases of Organizational Growth Model highlights organizational changes that will—inevitably—occur over time in organizations, from their infancy to maturity; this model is particularly useful for entrepreneurs who sometimes need to be reminded that change needs to occur, even in their small start-up organizations; and
5 Stacey’s Complexity Theory is introduced to highlight the interactive, time-dependent nature of organizations and their evolutionary processes. • Each framework aids a change agent in diagnosing a particular kind of organizational issue and suggests remedies for what ails an institution.
In Chapter 2, we considered the process of change (the Change Path). In this chapter, we deal with what aspects of an organization to change. Differentiating the process from the content is sometimes confusing, but the rather unusual example below will highlight the difference.
Bloodletting is a procedure that was performed to help alleviate the ills of mankind. . . . In the early 19th century, adults with good health from the country districts of England were bled as regularly as they went to market; this was considered to be preventive medicine.1
The practice of bloodletting was based on a set of assumptions about how the body worked—bloodletting would diminish the quantity of blood in the system and thus lessen the redness, heat, and swelling that was occurring. As a result, people seemed to get better after this treatment—but only in the short term. The reality was that they were weakened by the loss of blood. As we know today, the so-called science of bloodletting was based on an inaccurate understanding of the body. It is likely that bloodletting professionals worked to improve ...
Change ModelsDifferent models have been developed to help plan f.docxsleeperharwell
Change Models
Different models have been developed to help plan for and implement change. Change has been studied from the conceptual approach, such as "what," as well as from the process approach of "how."
The conceptual models of change usually concentrate on content and strategic initiatives. On the other hand, process models focus on the sequence of events necessary to effect organizational change by focusing on the stages and steps of implementation.
Develop Contextual Issues of the Change
Once the need for change and the cause for implementation have been established, the contextual issues of the change can be developed to help evaluate the extent of change that an organization can implement with the resources available. Factors to consider during this process include:
· Readiness of the organization
· Culture of the organization
· Systems issues
· Amount of resistance that might be involved
Communicate the Vision to Employees
Once the vision for the change has been developed, the leaders should communicate the vision to employees. The vision should be clearly articulated, including how the change will impact the employees. This can be difficult when the change will have a negative impact on employees, but it is better for employees to understand the change than to be in the dark.
When change is implemented and individuals' employment is affected, it may be best for leaders to hold off and not communicate any reductions in force until it is necessary for the employees to know. Any change in employee status can be hard for everyone, including the employees who are staying. Both groups of employees need careful communication and support while going through the transitions.
Plan Strategies and Develop Criteria
Once the reason for the change has been communicated, implementation strategies should be considered. This is an opportunity for the leadership to involve the workforce as the workforce can be instrumental in developing the implementation strategies. As the implementation strategies are being formed, how the outcomes would be measured should be considered. How will an organization know when the change is finished and successful? If the organization includes outcome measures (e.g., increase in market share and decrease in costs) in its planning, it will help those implanting the change to know what constitutes success.
Implement and Monitor
Change can then be implemented, monitored, and managed to ensure that sequential steps are taken and continuous feedback is available.
While there are several steps for managing and monitoring change, most change processes will follow this type of model. On the other hand, conceptual models of change emphasize the mental constructs and sense making of the change
Change Process Models
There are several change models that can be used to implement a change effort. The process models are often used because they provide leaders and organizations with a sequential approach to cha.
In a few sentences summarize the key takeaway from chapter 3, 4 & MalikPinckney86
In a few sentences summarize the key takeaway from chapter 3, 4 & 5 then continue to answer the following:
1. What is our personal abyss, and according to Haldeman, what are we afraid of?
2. How have recent events placed your organization at an impasse? Could you or your organizations have been more prepared for the impasse? In what sense? Which people and organizations are most likely to be unprepared and have the hardest time?
3. Think of and ask a discussion question back to your cohort group.
Please see Chapters Below
CHAPTER THREE
Change Process and Models
William J. Rothwell, Roland L. Sullivan, Taesung Kim, Jong Gyu Park, and Wesley E. Donahue
A model for change is a simplified representation of the general steps in initiating and carrying out a change process. It is rooted in solid research and theory. Managers and consultants, when demonstrating the competencies of an OD practitioner, are well-advised to rely on a model for change as a compass to show them the direction in which to lead the change effort and change process. In this chapter, we review numerous models to guide the change process.
AN OVERVIEW OF KEY MODELS FOR ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE The change models we share rely primarily on a normative, reeducative, and innovative approach to behavioral change. They are (1) the traditional action research model, (2) Appreciative Inquiry, and (3) an evolving view of the action research model. The Traditional Action Research Model Action research has long been the foundation for many change efforts. It is properly regarded as a philosophy, a model, and a process. Like any change model, action research is a simplified representation of the complex activities that 42
CHANGE PROCESS AND MODELS 43 should occur in a change effort if it is to be participative, engaging, and empowering for those affected by it. The model serves as a compass to consultants facilitating change. While it does not tell consultants, managers, or workers exactly what to do in a paint-by-the-numbers fashion, it provides a process whereby the consultant and client can jointly inquire and decide what change is required. It helps consultants track where they are and where they are going. While the action research model has been depicted in different ways, the depictions of it share common characteristics. Figure 3.1 illustrates a general model of action research. Action research may also be understood as a process of continuing events and actions. In a classic description, French and Bell (1990) defined this interpretation of action research as "The process of systematically collecting research data about an ongoing system relative to some objective, goal, or need of that system; feeding these data back into the system; taking actions by altering selected variables within the system based both on the data and on hypotheses; and evaluating the results of actions by collecting more data" (99). One way to think about the traditional action re ...
A theoretical framework oforganizational changeGabriele .docxstandfordabbot
A theoretical framework of
organizational change
Gabriele Jacobs
Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam,
The Netherlands
Arjen van Witteloostuijn
University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium, Tilburg University, Tilburg,
The Netherlands, and Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands, and
Jochen Christe-Zeyse
Fachhochschule der Polizei Brandenburg, Brandenburg, Germany
Abstract
Purpose – Organizational change is a risky endeavour. Most change initiatives fall short on their
goals and produce high opportunity and process costs, which at times outweigh the content benefits of
organizational change. This paper seeks to develop a framework, offering a theoretical toolbox to
analyze context-dependent barriers and enablers of organizational change. Starting from an
organizational identity perspective, it aims to link contingency-based approaches, such as
environmental scan, SWOT and stakeholder analysis, with insights from organizational behaviour
research, such as knowledge sharing and leadership.
Design/methodology/approach – The framework is informed by long-lasting field research into
organizational change in an international policing environment. The theories in the framework are
selected from the perspective of field validity in two ways; they were chosen because the topics
covered by these theories emerged as relevant during the field research and therefore it can be
expected they have applicability to the field. The authors’ insights and suggestions are summarised in
13 propositions throughout the text.
Findings – The analysis provides a clear warning that organizational change is more risky and
multifaceted than change initiators typically assume. It is stressed that the external environment and
the internal dynamics of organizations co-determine the meaning of managerial practices. This implies
that cure-all recipes to organizational change are bound to fail.
Originality/value – This paper makes an ambitious attempt to cross disciplinary boundaries in the
field of organizational change research to contribute to a more comprehensive and holistic
understanding of change processes by integrating perspectives that focus on the internal context and
the external environment of organizations.
Keywords Organizational change, Contingency analysis, Culture, Leadership, Environmental scan,
Police, Public security, Public management, International environment, Costs of change, Policing
Paper type Research paper
Organizational change as a risky strategy
Organizational change is omnipresent, being the raison d’être of the consultancy
industry (Sorge and van Witteloostuijn, 2004). Modern organization sciences have
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/0953-4814.htm
The authors would like to thank the project partners for their contribution to this work. This
research is partially funded by the European Commission in the context of the COMPOSITE
projec.
A quick summary of organizational change management models from a variety of theoretical perspectives including classic process models within the context of lifecycle models, culture theories, diagnostic frameworks and individual reaction models.
Explain the organizational archetypes as described by Mintzberg and .pdfrastogiarun
Explain the organizational and individual purposes for expatriation. Why do these need to be
incorporated as part of a strategic approach to managing global assignments?
Solution
The organizational and individual purposes for expatriation are as follows:
They needs to incorporated to manage global assignments because:.
A Comparison of Five popular Models for Managing Business Changejehovah
Organizational change management (OCM) is a structured approach in an organization for ensuring that changes are smoothly and successfully implemented, and that the lasting benefits of change are achieved. That is easier said than done.
Nevertheless, there are many management consultants, clinical psychologists and social scientists who have carried out extensive research on the dynamics of change and proposed models and frameworks to understand the same.
We present here a comparison of five popular models. By no means is this list complete. The complexity and unpredictability of human behavior will ensure that the field of change management will continuously produce more frameworks to study and more models to adopt.
WEEK 5 SCHOOL RESOURSESRole Concepts in HealthcareRole theory is t.docxhelzerpatrina
WEEK 5 SCHOOL RESOURSESRole Concepts in Healthcare
Role theory is the product of interdisciplinary theory development that includes anthropology, sociology, and social psychology. It contains concepts and propositional statements that address specific aspects of social behavior, the goal of which is the understanding and explanation of social order. Role theory seeks to predict how individuals will perform in a given role. Nursing role can be interpreted as a normative structure learned and internalized during the process of professional socialization in nursing. Socialization occurs as role occupants interact with others in related positions.
Socialization is the process by which individuals acquire the knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, motivations, and patterns that shape their adaptation to the setting in which they live and work. It is viewed as an interactional-reciprocal process in which the person being socialized and the socializer are mutually influenced. The process includes the learning of motor and language skills, social roles, moral norms and values, affective and cognitive modes of functioning. The goal is attainment of competence in performance of the role in order to be accepted by society. Socializing agents are family, authority figures, peers, and institutions, and the process is a means of transmitting learning to the person being socialized. The primary focus is on occupational, marital, and parental roles.
Socialization is a continuous and cumulative process. Nursing professionals are constantly dealing with staff members, patients, and their families. The nature of their work calls for a certain amount of socialization in order to be able to interact effectively with colleagues, patients and their families. For example, the improved technical skills and competencies of a new nurse is the result of socialization. A nurse, who is not comfortable with electrocardiographic interpretations or handling pulmonary catheters, gains confidence after getting some assistance from experienced staff nurses. Similarly, changes in the affective domain are also the result of socialization.
Sources of Role Strain in Nursing:
From typology, let's move on to examine some of the assumptions of the role theory:
· People seek problematic, challenging situations in which they may use their skills and knowledge.
· People are predisposed to actualizing their own potential.
· Conflict is necessary for progress and the development of consensus in a social system.
· Conflict and challenge facilitate individual growth.
· Role difficulties and problems are neither abnormal nor undesirable.
In the light of these assumptions, consider some of conditions that contribute to role strain in the nursing profession:
· Socialization deficit—lack of adequate socialization for the role or for status changes within the role, such as promotions
· Role differentiation—changes in the role due to changing technology, increased organizational complexity, change ...
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Purpose - The purpose of this article is to analyze the commonalities of various change and transition models developed over time to assist with and support managing organizational change. Design/methodology/approach - The article provides an examination of change and transition models through a review of relevant literature and the comparison of different models. Findings - Each change and transition model has similar methods of handling change. Their unique methods and strategies provide additional insights into possible applications to most organizations. In some cases, models could be combined to form new models to best fit the circumstances of the organization. Practical implications - This comparison can assist individuals in evaluating and selecting the model based on organizational need while remembering to focus on both the physical and the emotional changes in an organization. Originality/value - The article shows that human resource managers can benefit from learning the commonalities between change and transition models when considering what will work for their organization in conjunction with the review of a number of well known and relevant models.
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Introduction
Change is evident everywhere from th.
Running Head FOUR-FRAME MODEL 1FOUR-FRAME MODEL7Fou.docxcowinhelen
Running Head: FOUR-FRAME MODEL
1
FOUR-FRAME MODEL
7
Four Frame Model
Rubin Wilkins
Module 5 Assignment 2
Argosy University Los Angeles
Professor: Dale Mancini
February 15, 2017
Four-frame Model
Introduction
Bolman and Deal synthesized the foregoing leadership theory into four contemporary cognitive perspectives which they further organized into frames to assist leaders in the decision-making process in relation to each individual situation. It was their understanding that the use of such frames would assist leaders in analyzing respective events in a different manner and perspective. In essence, they provide ‘windows’ that enhance the leaders’ to have a broader understanding of the challenges being faced by the organization and solutions that are potentially available. This insightful piece therefore proceeds to help in understanding the frames.
The Four-Frame Model of leadership is a creation stemming from the meshing of various organizational theories to form a wide-encompassing one. These consolidated theories include; the trait theory, power and influence theory, situational and contingency theory, and the behavioral theory (Bateman, 2007). They have been developed over a span of many years. The multiple perspectives emanating from the various theoretical underpinnings are the ones termed as frames by the two theorists; through which an organization is viewed by the leaders and other related persons. These ‘windows’ further operate to bring an organization into focus and subsequently serve as filters which offer the leaders order and assist them in making decisions. Furthermore, the frames comprise of the structural frame, human resource frame, political frame and the symbolic frame. Each individual frame represents a perspective
accompanied by its own assumptions and attributes.
The structural frame is used in viewing the world from an orderly point of view furnished with a multiplicity of rules and procedures. The human resource frame then comes in to assume that goals are best achieved through the meeting of organization members’ needs and fully appreciating the workforce as fundamental part of the organization. The political frame appertains to the conflicts, alliances and bartering of respective parties to properly use and allocate the scares resources owned by and charged to the organization. Finally, symbolic frame relates to the issues of culture, symbols and rituals of an organization as opposed to the established rules and procedures.
Theme among articles
Song, Kim and Kolb (2009) set out to research on the effect of learning an organization’s culture and the established linkage between interpersonal trust and the general commitment to an organization. The sample used in this study was primarily obtained from various employees working to conglomerate entities of Korea. Resultantly, it was established that learning an organization’s culture worked as a mediating factor in the explanation of associations betwe ...
Due September 16thJobs and LaborPlease answer the followingAlyciaGold776
Due: September 16th
Jobs and Labor
Please answer the following questions:
Part One:
For many individuals, the nature of work and jobs is changing. Describe some reasons for the changes and how they are affecting HR management and organizations.
Part Two:
Managing Employee Turnover
Think about any HR experience you may have. Then, in your own words, write one or two paragraphs answering the following question: If you became a new manager at a restaurant with high employee turnover, what actions would you take to increase employee retention?
12
JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT AND CHANGE
No 34/35 2015/2016
A Concept for Diagnosing and Developing Organizational Change Capabilities
A Concept for Diagnosing and Developing
Organizational Change Capabilities
Christina Schweiger, Barbara Kump and Lorena Hoormann
Abstract
In modern industries, organizations are facing
the need to continuously change and adapt
to dynamic environmental conditions. To
address this change, organizations require
several specific capabilities, which will be
referred to as organizational change capabili-
ties. As the paper will outline, organizational
change capabilities are a type of dynamic
capability grounded in an organization’s
change logic. The model of organizational
change capabilities presented in this paper
distinguishes search, ref lection, seizing, plan-
ning, implementation, and strategy making
capabilities. Based on this model, (a) concepts
for diagnosing and improving change capabili-
ties, and (b) an innovative intervention design
for organizational development are devel-
oped, which are generic and can be tailored to
the needs of a specific firm. The theoretical
analysis sketched in this paper may further
stimulate theory development at the interface
of dynamic capabilities and dominant logic.
At the same time, the innovative intervention
design is expected to be of high practical value
for managers and practitioners in the field of
organizational development.
Key Words
Change capabilities, dynamic capabilities,
organizational change logic, organizational
development, organizational diagnosis
Introduction
Due to increasing turbulence in the markets
and intense competition, organizations need to
continuously change and adapt to their envi-
ronments to survive. Dynamically changing
operating environments require a proactive
approach, where change occurs in a strategic
way in anticipation of prospective alterations
(Judge & Douglas, 2009; Worley & Lawler,
2006). Proactive organizational change
requires the identification and development
of strategic options and the implementation
of the planned strategic changes. To achieve
these changes, organizations need certain
capabilities, which have been referred to as
organizational change capabilities (Soparnot,
2011).
A lack of change capabilities may lead to struc-
tural inertia; that is, the inability to address
Christina Schweiger is Senior Researcher and Lecturer in ...
Academic Research Impact (ARI) Ecosystem Theory: An IntroductionMichael Thompson
How do you design, plan, evaluate, and execute your research in a way that is most impactful in a connected world?
These slides provide an introduction to Academic Research Impact (ARI) Ecosystem Theory - A ecosystem-based working theory on what things to consider when thinking about Academic Research Impact Management and Maximization, predicting system to individual-level research impact behavior, planning ARI, ARI Accountability, and characterizing how ARI progresses at an individual, micro, meso, and macro-level.
Essay On My Role Model. My Role Model Essay - EdenkruwOrtizBria Davis
Awesome Role Model Essay ~ Thatsnotus. School essay: Role model essay example. My Role Model Essay - EdenkruwOrtiz. 10 Lines Essay on My Role Model/My Mother-My Role Model/Essay in .... Reflection Essay: Essays on role models. role model essay my role model in life essay public speaking speech .... Role Model Essay Example. My role model is my grandfather Free Essay Example. Essay On My Role Model – Telegraph. Role Model Essay | PDF | Grandparent | Father. My Role Model Essay – Telegraph. College Essay: Role model essay. My Role Model - Essay - 251 Words - essaypersuade.x.fc2.com.
Perception Essay. Definition of perception Essay Example StudyHippo.comBria Davis
Definition of perception Essay Example | StudyHippo.com. Is Introspection a Form of Perception Essay Example | StudyHippo.com. Formidable Perception Essay ~ Thatsnotus. Perception checking essays - gcisdk12.web.fc2.com. Perception and Critical Thinking: Five Senses of Perception - Essay .... Culture and Perception Interview Essay - Culture and Perception .... Perception. This essay will discuss the extent to which this picture or .... Example of a Perception Paragraph Free Essay Example. Visual Perception Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 .... visual perception essay. Perception Review | Essays | Phrase. Theories of perception (400 Words) - PHDessay.com. ≫ Effect of Perception in the Workplace Free Essay Sample on Samploon.com. Truth perception essay. Content, Consciousness, and Perception : Essays in Contemporary .... A Customer Perception of Csr Management Essay | Corporate Social .... Sensation and perception essay - writinghtml.web.fc2.com. Perception on the Subjectivity of Perception Essay Example | StudyHippo.com. Perception essay.docx with pointers. 005 Perception Essay Example ~ Thatsnotus. Perception Essay.docx - Amiee Londono Comm200s Perception Essay .... Perception essay revision - Ox Perception Essay Revision Compare and .... On Perception. Examples of self perception essays - thedrudgereort668.web.fc2.com. This essay will attempt to give an accurate explanation of what .... ≫ Our Perception of Others Free Essay Sample on Samploon.com. Perception in Public Speaking Essay Example | StudyHippo.com. 003 Perception Essay Quiz Worksheet The Theory Of In Psychology .... Perception and Sensing of Our Everyday Environment Research Paper .... ⛔ Self perception essay. American Self Perception vs. The Truth Essay .... Self perception speech critique. Sensation and Perception: Phantom Limb Pain Essay Example | Topics and ... Perception Essay Perception Essay. Definition of perception Essay Example StudyHippo.com
A quick summary of organizational change management models from a variety of theoretical perspectives including classic process models within the context of lifecycle models, culture theories, diagnostic frameworks and individual reaction models.
Explain the organizational archetypes as described by Mintzberg and .pdfrastogiarun
Explain the organizational and individual purposes for expatriation. Why do these need to be
incorporated as part of a strategic approach to managing global assignments?
Solution
The organizational and individual purposes for expatriation are as follows:
They needs to incorporated to manage global assignments because:.
A Comparison of Five popular Models for Managing Business Changejehovah
Organizational change management (OCM) is a structured approach in an organization for ensuring that changes are smoothly and successfully implemented, and that the lasting benefits of change are achieved. That is easier said than done.
Nevertheless, there are many management consultants, clinical psychologists and social scientists who have carried out extensive research on the dynamics of change and proposed models and frameworks to understand the same.
We present here a comparison of five popular models. By no means is this list complete. The complexity and unpredictability of human behavior will ensure that the field of change management will continuously produce more frameworks to study and more models to adopt.
WEEK 5 SCHOOL RESOURSESRole Concepts in HealthcareRole theory is t.docxhelzerpatrina
WEEK 5 SCHOOL RESOURSESRole Concepts in Healthcare
Role theory is the product of interdisciplinary theory development that includes anthropology, sociology, and social psychology. It contains concepts and propositional statements that address specific aspects of social behavior, the goal of which is the understanding and explanation of social order. Role theory seeks to predict how individuals will perform in a given role. Nursing role can be interpreted as a normative structure learned and internalized during the process of professional socialization in nursing. Socialization occurs as role occupants interact with others in related positions.
Socialization is the process by which individuals acquire the knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, motivations, and patterns that shape their adaptation to the setting in which they live and work. It is viewed as an interactional-reciprocal process in which the person being socialized and the socializer are mutually influenced. The process includes the learning of motor and language skills, social roles, moral norms and values, affective and cognitive modes of functioning. The goal is attainment of competence in performance of the role in order to be accepted by society. Socializing agents are family, authority figures, peers, and institutions, and the process is a means of transmitting learning to the person being socialized. The primary focus is on occupational, marital, and parental roles.
Socialization is a continuous and cumulative process. Nursing professionals are constantly dealing with staff members, patients, and their families. The nature of their work calls for a certain amount of socialization in order to be able to interact effectively with colleagues, patients and their families. For example, the improved technical skills and competencies of a new nurse is the result of socialization. A nurse, who is not comfortable with electrocardiographic interpretations or handling pulmonary catheters, gains confidence after getting some assistance from experienced staff nurses. Similarly, changes in the affective domain are also the result of socialization.
Sources of Role Strain in Nursing:
From typology, let's move on to examine some of the assumptions of the role theory:
· People seek problematic, challenging situations in which they may use their skills and knowledge.
· People are predisposed to actualizing their own potential.
· Conflict is necessary for progress and the development of consensus in a social system.
· Conflict and challenge facilitate individual growth.
· Role difficulties and problems are neither abnormal nor undesirable.
In the light of these assumptions, consider some of conditions that contribute to role strain in the nursing profession:
· Socialization deficit—lack of adequate socialization for the role or for status changes within the role, such as promotions
· Role differentiation—changes in the role due to changing technology, increased organizational complexity, change ...
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Purpose - The purpose of this article is to analyze the commonalities of various change and transition models developed over time to assist with and support managing organizational change. Design/methodology/approach - The article provides an examination of change and transition models through a review of relevant literature and the comparison of different models. Findings - Each change and transition model has similar methods of handling change. Their unique methods and strategies provide additional insights into possible applications to most organizations. In some cases, models could be combined to form new models to best fit the circumstances of the organization. Practical implications - This comparison can assist individuals in evaluating and selecting the model based on organizational need while remembering to focus on both the physical and the emotional changes in an organization. Originality/value - The article shows that human resource managers can benefit from learning the commonalities between change and transition models when considering what will work for their organization in conjunction with the review of a number of well known and relevant models.
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Introduction
Change is evident everywhere from th.
Running Head FOUR-FRAME MODEL 1FOUR-FRAME MODEL7Fou.docxcowinhelen
Running Head: FOUR-FRAME MODEL
1
FOUR-FRAME MODEL
7
Four Frame Model
Rubin Wilkins
Module 5 Assignment 2
Argosy University Los Angeles
Professor: Dale Mancini
February 15, 2017
Four-frame Model
Introduction
Bolman and Deal synthesized the foregoing leadership theory into four contemporary cognitive perspectives which they further organized into frames to assist leaders in the decision-making process in relation to each individual situation. It was their understanding that the use of such frames would assist leaders in analyzing respective events in a different manner and perspective. In essence, they provide ‘windows’ that enhance the leaders’ to have a broader understanding of the challenges being faced by the organization and solutions that are potentially available. This insightful piece therefore proceeds to help in understanding the frames.
The Four-Frame Model of leadership is a creation stemming from the meshing of various organizational theories to form a wide-encompassing one. These consolidated theories include; the trait theory, power and influence theory, situational and contingency theory, and the behavioral theory (Bateman, 2007). They have been developed over a span of many years. The multiple perspectives emanating from the various theoretical underpinnings are the ones termed as frames by the two theorists; through which an organization is viewed by the leaders and other related persons. These ‘windows’ further operate to bring an organization into focus and subsequently serve as filters which offer the leaders order and assist them in making decisions. Furthermore, the frames comprise of the structural frame, human resource frame, political frame and the symbolic frame. Each individual frame represents a perspective
accompanied by its own assumptions and attributes.
The structural frame is used in viewing the world from an orderly point of view furnished with a multiplicity of rules and procedures. The human resource frame then comes in to assume that goals are best achieved through the meeting of organization members’ needs and fully appreciating the workforce as fundamental part of the organization. The political frame appertains to the conflicts, alliances and bartering of respective parties to properly use and allocate the scares resources owned by and charged to the organization. Finally, symbolic frame relates to the issues of culture, symbols and rituals of an organization as opposed to the established rules and procedures.
Theme among articles
Song, Kim and Kolb (2009) set out to research on the effect of learning an organization’s culture and the established linkage between interpersonal trust and the general commitment to an organization. The sample used in this study was primarily obtained from various employees working to conglomerate entities of Korea. Resultantly, it was established that learning an organization’s culture worked as a mediating factor in the explanation of associations betwe ...
Due September 16thJobs and LaborPlease answer the followingAlyciaGold776
Due: September 16th
Jobs and Labor
Please answer the following questions:
Part One:
For many individuals, the nature of work and jobs is changing. Describe some reasons for the changes and how they are affecting HR management and organizations.
Part Two:
Managing Employee Turnover
Think about any HR experience you may have. Then, in your own words, write one or two paragraphs answering the following question: If you became a new manager at a restaurant with high employee turnover, what actions would you take to increase employee retention?
12
JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT AND CHANGE
No 34/35 2015/2016
A Concept for Diagnosing and Developing Organizational Change Capabilities
A Concept for Diagnosing and Developing
Organizational Change Capabilities
Christina Schweiger, Barbara Kump and Lorena Hoormann
Abstract
In modern industries, organizations are facing
the need to continuously change and adapt
to dynamic environmental conditions. To
address this change, organizations require
several specific capabilities, which will be
referred to as organizational change capabili-
ties. As the paper will outline, organizational
change capabilities are a type of dynamic
capability grounded in an organization’s
change logic. The model of organizational
change capabilities presented in this paper
distinguishes search, ref lection, seizing, plan-
ning, implementation, and strategy making
capabilities. Based on this model, (a) concepts
for diagnosing and improving change capabili-
ties, and (b) an innovative intervention design
for organizational development are devel-
oped, which are generic and can be tailored to
the needs of a specific firm. The theoretical
analysis sketched in this paper may further
stimulate theory development at the interface
of dynamic capabilities and dominant logic.
At the same time, the innovative intervention
design is expected to be of high practical value
for managers and practitioners in the field of
organizational development.
Key Words
Change capabilities, dynamic capabilities,
organizational change logic, organizational
development, organizational diagnosis
Introduction
Due to increasing turbulence in the markets
and intense competition, organizations need to
continuously change and adapt to their envi-
ronments to survive. Dynamically changing
operating environments require a proactive
approach, where change occurs in a strategic
way in anticipation of prospective alterations
(Judge & Douglas, 2009; Worley & Lawler,
2006). Proactive organizational change
requires the identification and development
of strategic options and the implementation
of the planned strategic changes. To achieve
these changes, organizations need certain
capabilities, which have been referred to as
organizational change capabilities (Soparnot,
2011).
A lack of change capabilities may lead to struc-
tural inertia; that is, the inability to address
Christina Schweiger is Senior Researcher and Lecturer in ...
Academic Research Impact (ARI) Ecosystem Theory: An IntroductionMichael Thompson
How do you design, plan, evaluate, and execute your research in a way that is most impactful in a connected world?
These slides provide an introduction to Academic Research Impact (ARI) Ecosystem Theory - A ecosystem-based working theory on what things to consider when thinking about Academic Research Impact Management and Maximization, predicting system to individual-level research impact behavior, planning ARI, ARI Accountability, and characterizing how ARI progresses at an individual, micro, meso, and macro-level.
Essay On My Role Model. My Role Model Essay - EdenkruwOrtizBria Davis
Awesome Role Model Essay ~ Thatsnotus. School essay: Role model essay example. My Role Model Essay - EdenkruwOrtiz. 10 Lines Essay on My Role Model/My Mother-My Role Model/Essay in .... Reflection Essay: Essays on role models. role model essay my role model in life essay public speaking speech .... Role Model Essay Example. My role model is my grandfather Free Essay Example. Essay On My Role Model – Telegraph. Role Model Essay | PDF | Grandparent | Father. My Role Model Essay – Telegraph. College Essay: Role model essay. My Role Model - Essay - 251 Words - essaypersuade.x.fc2.com.
Perception Essay. Definition of perception Essay Example StudyHippo.comBria Davis
Definition of perception Essay Example | StudyHippo.com. Is Introspection a Form of Perception Essay Example | StudyHippo.com. Formidable Perception Essay ~ Thatsnotus. Perception checking essays - gcisdk12.web.fc2.com. Perception and Critical Thinking: Five Senses of Perception - Essay .... Culture and Perception Interview Essay - Culture and Perception .... Perception. This essay will discuss the extent to which this picture or .... Example of a Perception Paragraph Free Essay Example. Visual Perception Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 .... visual perception essay. Perception Review | Essays | Phrase. Theories of perception (400 Words) - PHDessay.com. ≫ Effect of Perception in the Workplace Free Essay Sample on Samploon.com. Truth perception essay. Content, Consciousness, and Perception : Essays in Contemporary .... A Customer Perception of Csr Management Essay | Corporate Social .... Sensation and perception essay - writinghtml.web.fc2.com. Perception on the Subjectivity of Perception Essay Example | StudyHippo.com. Perception essay.docx with pointers. 005 Perception Essay Example ~ Thatsnotus. Perception Essay.docx - Amiee Londono Comm200s Perception Essay .... Perception essay revision - Ox Perception Essay Revision Compare and .... On Perception. Examples of self perception essays - thedrudgereort668.web.fc2.com. This essay will attempt to give an accurate explanation of what .... ≫ Our Perception of Others Free Essay Sample on Samploon.com. Perception in Public Speaking Essay Example | StudyHippo.com. 003 Perception Essay Quiz Worksheet The Theory Of In Psychology .... Perception and Sensing of Our Everyday Environment Research Paper .... ⛔ Self perception essay. American Self Perception vs. The Truth Essay .... Self perception speech critique. Sensation and Perception: Phantom Limb Pain Essay Example | Topics and ... Perception Essay Perception Essay. Definition of perception Essay Example StudyHippo.com
200 Word Essay Example. write an essay on the topic quot;My favourite moviequ...Bria Davis
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The Gift Of The Magi Essay. The Story The Gift of the Magi and Its Thematic S...Bria Davis
The Gift Of The Magi Essay Example for Free - 998 Words | EssayPay. The Gift of the Magi Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays .... Analysis Of The Gift Of The Magi Essay Example | Topics and Well .... The gift of the magi. Gift of magi essay - writefiction581.web.fc2.com. The Gift of the Magi by O. Henry.
Marbury Vs Madison Essay. Marbury vs madison case brief. Marbury v. Madison ...Bria Davis
Marbury vs Madison - PHDessay.com. Marbury v. Madison Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays .... Marbury V. Madison. ️ Marbury v madison effect. Case Brief Summary: Marbury V. Madison .... Marbury v. Madison by Allison Leazer | Teachers Pay Teachers. Sale > marbury v madison arguments each side > in stock. Marbury V. Madison Study Resources. Marbury v. Madison: Summary & Significance - Free comparison essay .... Free Marbury Vs Madison Essay Examples And Topic Ideas | Studymoose.com. Marbury v madison summary analysis essay. Marbury v. Madison: The Most Important Decision in American .... Marbury v. Madison: A Landmark Supreme Court Case - 338 Words | Essay .... Marbury vs Madison and the Power of Judicial Review Essay Example .... Marbury v. Madison: The Birth of Judicial Review Free Essay Example. Marbury v. Madison 1803 Article and Writing Assignment | Writing .... Marbury v Madison Worksheet. Caso Marbury Vs Madison Ensayo | PDF | Tribunal Supremo de los Estados .... Marbury v. Madison & Judicial Review Analysis + Distance Learning .... Custom Essay | amazonia.fiocruz.br.
Argumentative Essay Cell Phones In SchoolBria Davis
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Essay On Hindi Language. Essay on students and politics in hindi - essnewday....Bria Davis
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Causes Of Global Warming Essay. Essay on Global Warming- Leverage EduBria Davis
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Business Law Essay Questions. Law Essay Problem Questions Argument LawsuitBria Davis
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Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
BÀI TẬP BỔ TRỢ TIẾNG ANH GLOBAL SUCCESS LỚP 3 - CẢ NĂM (CÓ FILE NGHE VÀ ĐÁP Á...
An Outsourcing Partnership Model
1. An outsourcing partnership model
Marianne Kinnula
M.Sc, University of Oulu, marianne.kinnula@oulu.fi
Abstract
Different kinds of collaboration modes between companies have become a mainstream
fashion. One of such modes is outsourcing partnership where one company transfers part of
its business to another company and after that the companies continue collaboration in a
partnership mode. Understanding of how the relationship works, how it grows and develops is
crucial for getting the best out of the collaboration and for avoiding the possible difficulties.
However, a complete picture of an outsourcing partnership life cycle cannot be found from
the literature. In this paper such a model is presented and discussed.
Keywords
Outsourcing, partnering, outsourcing partnership
Introduction
Partnering and networking are the trends of the business in the era of New Economy. The new
economy is very dynamic and requires considerable agility – ability to adjust, refocus and
reconstruct the development organization according to the changes in the market. This has not
gone unnoticed in the industry. The trend is for the companies to concentrate on their strategic
competences and to somehow acquire from other companies competences they need but do
not have – and do not want to have – in-house. While this gives the companies better
prospects in the new economy markets, it comes with a price. Close co-operation between
companies causes significant risks because quality of the bought services will be found out
only after the service has already been realised. And when these services are directly linked to
the lifeline of the company – the product itself – the risks can have extremely severe
consequences.
Regardless of the risks, different kinds of collaboration modes between companies are
becoming a mainstream fashion. One of such modes is outsourcing partnership where one
company transfers part of its business to another company and after that the companies
continue collaboration in a partnership mode. Understanding of how the relationship works,
how it grows and develops is crucial for getting the best out of the collaboration and for
avoiding the possible difficulties.
An outsourcing partnership process is an organizational change process and for the basis of
that thinking the theories of organizational change are discussed in the next chapter. After that
two outsourcing life cycle models are presented together with a relationship approach to
outsourcing partnerships. A proposition for an outsourcing life cycle model is presented in the
next chapter together with discussion of the activities inside the model. In the last chapter
conclusions of the model are drawn.
2. Theories of organizational change
To understand and explain better the reasons and ways behind organizational change the
management scholars have borrowed metaphors, concepts, and theories from many other
disciplines. This has given many novel views into the processes of organizational change. A
combination of theories often gives a more comprehensive understanding of a complex
phenomenon. (Van de Ven & Poole, 1995).
Van de Ven and Poole (1995) contend that all the specific theories of organizational change
and development used in management research come back to four basic theories: life cycle
theory, evolution theory, dialectic theory, and teleology. Most of the organizational theories
are some kind of a combination of these four. To understand better differencies between the
above-mentioned theories, see Figure 1, by Van de Ven and Poole (1995). In that figure the
authors present a metatheoretical scheme where the basic theories have been illustrated based
on four characteristics that distinguish all the theories: in all of them “process is viewed as a
different cycle of change events, which is governed by a different ‘motor’ or generating
mechanism that operates on a different unit of analysis and represents a different mode of
change”. The arrows in the figure do not present causation between events but likely
sequences amongst them.
EVOLUTION DIALECTIC
LIFE CYCLE TELEOLOGY
Multiple
Entities
Unit of
Change
Single
Entity
Prescribed Constructive
Mode of Change
Stage 4 (Terminate)
Stage 2 (Grow)
Stage 3
(Harvest)
Stage 1
(Start-up)
Immanent program
Regulation
Compliant adaptation
Dissatisfaction
Set/Envision Goals
Implement
Goals
Search/
Interact
Purposeful enactment
Social construction
Consensus
Variation
Population scarcity
Environmental selection
Competition
Pluralism (Diversity)
Confrontation
Conflict
Selection Retention
Thesis
Antithesis
Antithesis Synthesis
EVOLUTION DIALECTIC
LIFE CYCLE TELEOLOGY
Multiple
Entities
Unit of
Change
Single
Entity
Prescribed Constructive
Mode of Change
Stage 4 (Terminate)
Stage 2 (Grow)
Stage 3
(Harvest)
Stage 1
(Start-up)
Immanent program
Regulation
Compliant adaptation
Dissatisfaction
Set/Envision Goals
Implement
Goals
Search/
Interact
Purposeful enactment
Social construction
Consensus
Variation
Population scarcity
Environmental selection
Competition
Pluralism (Diversity)
Confrontation
Conflict
Selection Retention
Thesis
Antithesis
Antithesis Synthesis
Figure 1. Process theories of organizational development and change (Van de Ven & Poole,
1995, p. 520)
3. “Life cycle” is a metaphor often used by management scholars for explaining the
organizational behaviour. In the management research, next to teleology, it is probably the
most used explanation of development of an organizational entity (organization, product,
venture …) from its birth to its termination (Van de Ven & Poole, 1995). In life cycle theory
the process of change in a single entity is depicted as going through different, necessary,
stages. The events are stable and predictable and the changes happen over long term and they
are small, reducing thus the uncertainty in the process.
Teleological theory explains development as proceeding toward a goal, and that guides the
movement of an entity. The entity itself is purposeful and adaptive; it constructs for itself an
end state, takes needed actions for reaching the end state, and monitors the progress. That can
be seen as a repetitive process that restarts again and again, as, after reaching the original end
state, the entity modifies the goals once again based on the learnings of the entity.
In dialectical theory the assumption is that an organizational entity exists in a world where
there are colliding forces and contradictory values that compete for getting the control and
domination. These oppositions may be either internal or external to the organizational entity,
caused by the conflicting goals inside the organization or between itself and another
organization. Changes in the organization happen when the opposing forces gain enough
power to confront each other. The opposing forces, having their or own theses and antitheses,
may come to some kind of a compromise, synthesis.
In evolutionary theory change happens through competition, caused by scarcity of resources,
between multiple entities. They variate by creating novel forms of organizations – usually
these variations are seen to just happen, randomly or blindly. Competition for scarce
resources forces the selection between these organizations. Retention is needed as for
maintaining the previous forms and practises when the evolutional loop starts again.
An outsourcing partnership can be viewed through eyeglasses of all these theories. The most
commonly used theory in outsourcing and partnering research seems, however, to be the life
cycle theory, although the researchers rarely mention what theory they assume to be behind
their research.
Outsourcing models
Even though it is implicitly clear that researchers assume that an outsourcing partnership
relationship goes through some kind of a life cycle, there are not very many descriptions of
the life cycle in whole. Most of the research addresses different phases of the life cycle and
does not even mention the life cycle itself. It is possible to identify single phases of the life
cycle in literature, and many of the phases or activities are even main topics of interest within
outsourcing and partnering research. But, to be able to understand the outsourcing partnership
phenomenon fully, separate pieces of the puzzle do not suffice; a complete picture of the life
cycle is needed.
4. Life cycle models
Amongst those models and frameworks found there are two that take a more general look to
the phenomenon. The term ‘life cycle’ is used in neither of the models – a word ‘process’ is
used instead. Still, both of the models satisfy the definition of a life cycle rather well: they
have a clear beginning and an end and there are some activities in between. Model of Zhu et
al. (2001) contemplates the life cycle from the strategic outsourcing point of view. The
relationship type has been left open – it is not clear whether the resulting relationship will be a
close one (as in partnering) or a more distant one (as in e.g. subcontracting). However, it is
assumed that some business is transferred to the other party and, in connection with that,
employees are transferred as well or given notice. The authors do not mention if their model
is purely theoretical or if there is some empirical data behind it. It is, nonetheless, directed for
both researchers and practisers of outsourcing. They divide their outsourcing process model in
four phases: planning, developing, implementing, and evaluation.
Ellram and Edis’s (1996) perspective is purchasing, and the intention of the relationship is
clearly a close partnering relationship. Transferring of businesses is not handled in any way in
this model, neither employee issues. Their model is based on an earlier model of purchasing
partnerships (Ellram, 1991b) and developed further with data obtained from a case study in
Kodak company. To understand the Ellram and Edis’s (1996) model fully, it is necessary to
read the earlier model (Ellram, 1991b) as well since all the details of the model are not fully
explained in the revised version of the model. Ellram and Edis’s (1996) model for
development and evaluation of purchasing relationship consists of five phases: preliminary
phase, identifying potential partners, screening and selecting, establishing relationship, and
evaluating relationship
A relationship approach
Outsourcing and partnering literature typically does not discuss very much relationship
management, even though success factors for the relationship have been researched rather
extensively (e.g. Ellram, 1991; Mohr & Spekman, 1994; Ellram, 1995; Lee & Kim, 1999;
Tuten & Urban, 2001). These factors, however, do not give very clear picture of what really
happens in that phase of the relationship, when the relationship is already ongoing. E.g. two
previously presented models (Ellram & Edis, 1996 and Zhu et al., 2001) discuss rather
thoroughly the planning, developing and implementing phases of outsourcing partnership but
mention very little what happens after that. In relationship marketing and interorganizational
relationship literature, as well as in strategic management literature, though, much more have
been written about relationship management and it is therefore rather natural to combine these
approaches together to get a more comprehensive picture of outsourcing partnerships.
Kern and Willcocks (2000) have combined earlier works and present a model of outsourcing
relationships. The model is applicable mainly to the customer’s point of view and focuses on
the relationship management element of the process. They also highlight the behavioural
aspects of a relationship.
According to Kern & Willcocks (2000) an outsourcing relationship is very context dependent:
The objectives and expectations from the relationship – be they either financial, business,
technical, or political expectations – reflect the antecedent conditions, which, in turn, affect
the contract between the parties. They come as inputs to the whole relationship management
5. process. As the relationship develops over time and success of it is greatly dependent on how
satisfactory the relationship is over time, there is also the time continuum present in the
model. The model shows key interactions between the parties. Behavioural dimensions are an
important aspect of the model: they are the ones that affect the atmosphere of the relationship
and thus affect all the interactions between parties. They are typically ‘service type’ of outputs
of the activities – created and consumed during the process.
Another view to the relationship between two parties comes from Ring and Van de Ven
(1994) who have tried to find a process for the development of such relationships. Even
though their process is of a nature of a life-cycle I present it here rather than among the life
cycle processes since it addresses more the relationship issues than the ‘hard’ processual
issues, and is therefore rather difficult to embed as such into the other two life-cycle models.
However, I feel it has so much consequence that I cannot leave it out.
Ring and Van de Ven (1994) describe in their “process framework for development of
cooperative interorganizational relationships” how these relationships emerge, grow, and
dissolve over time. They argue that when assessing a cooperative interorganizational
relationship two important criteria are efficiency, which has been traditionally a major
criterion for assessing the relationships, and equity, ‘fair dealing’, meaning that reciprocity is
needed but equivalence is not necessary. However, both parties need to somehow get
compensation in proportion to their investments. Fair dealing goes farther that just calculating
the numbers, it includes also the aspect of indebtness. Their view of the whole process is that
is consists of “a repetitive sequence of negotiation, commitment, and executions stages, each
of which is assessed in terms of equity and efficiency.” These phases overlap sometimes and
they may happen almost simultaneously, however, the duration of the phases varies. Social-
psychological interaction processes between individuals, where the individuals act according
to their formal role or informally, form the foundation of this process.
An outsourcing partnership life-cycle model
The outsourcing partnership model for the whole outsourcing partnership life cycle presented
in this chapter is based on the discussion and the models above. The model is a combination
of all the models presented in the previous chapter with additional insight from the
researchers who have digged more deeply to certain subjects. It considers outsourcing
partnership life cycle to consist of four phases: planning, developing, implementing, and
managing the relationship. The first three phases were rather natural parts of the two
previously presented life cycle models. Had the fourth phase been named accordingly, it
would have been called ‘evaluating’. However, as the relationship approach discussion in the
previous chapter showed, there is much more in a relationship than just evaluating it. Thus, I
felt that a more appropriate name for the fourth phase was ‘managing the relationship’.
A general overview of the outsourcing partnership model can be seen in Figure 2. The process
starts when an initial need for outsourcing has been noticed in a customer company and ends
when the relationship for some reason is dissolved. It is possible to exit the process during
any of its phases and go back to the previous phase(s) if needed.
6. Planning Developing Implementing Managing the
relationship
Planning Developing Implementing Managing the
relationship
Figure 2. The outsourcing partnership life cycle model overview
Planning phase
The outsourcing partnership process begins when a strategic need for an outsourcing
partnership is noticed in a customer company. This need may arise from many different
reasons, most often mentioned are need for cost reduction and need for knowledge the
company does not previously have (Lacity & Hirschheim, 1996; Kakabadse & Kakabadse,
2000). Other reasons may be e.g. flexibility in allocating human resources, access to new
markets, possibility to concentrate on company’s core competences, increasing product or
service quality, shortened time to-market, transferring fixed costs into variable costs, and
enhancing competitive advantage (e.g. Tuten & Urban, 2001; Embleton & Wright, 1998;
Kakabadse & Kakabadse, 2000).
This phase consists of three different activities:
o Form an outsourcing team for planning and implementing the outsourcing work
A fully empowered team for making a business plan and managing the outsourcing
partnership process is needed. Especially when one partner would serve various sites
(geographically or otherwise diverse), it’s essential that there is a representative from
each site in the team. Team members should be chosen also so, that they represent
different functions, divisions, and levels of hierarchy (e.g. product designers,
marketing experts, purchasing managers, engineers). Otherwise problems may arise,
e.g. problems with partner service and coverage in particular locations or particular
functions can be overlooked. The team should be able to understand both commercial
as well as technical issues to enable identifying what are the major determinants of
competitive advantage in all the fields on which the company competes, be it markets,
industries or any strategic groups. (Ellram & Edis, 1996; McIvor, 2000; Venkatesan,
1992)
o Support the outsourcing partnership process
Without top management support and commitment it is not possible to go through an
outsourcing partnership project and the team to do their work. This support is needed
at each step of the way. Company management has to give their full commitment to
7. the situation and they have to empower the team to act upon the decisions or activities
it confronts. (Ellram & Edis, 1996; Zhu et al., 2001; McIvor, 2000).
o Form a business plan
Zhu et al. (2001) argue that outsourcing decision should start with a sound business
plan, identifying which are all the costs associated with the current way of conducting
business. They also argue that there’s a need to document all the other factors that
affect the feasibility of outsourcing. These factors are e.g. what kind of impact the
outsourcing decision may have on customer services, what kind of impact it may have
on the community around the company, how it affects employees of the company, and
are there any political consequences. Embleton and Wright (1998) also mention the
possible impact on corporate culture.
When creating a business plan, maybe the most important things to consider are what
the relationship antecedents are, that is, what are the expectations that partners have
about the benefits gained from an outsourcing partnership and what are the goals of
both companies for the relationship. By somehow creating a win-win situation for
both partners would make the relationship mutually attractive and viable over long-
term. (Tuten & Urban, 2001; Ellram & Edis, 1996).
Some other things mentioned that should be considered when making a business plan
are definition and analysis of the activities to be outsourced (Embleton & Wright,
1998; Ellram & Edis, 1996; McIvor, 2000; Lacity & Hirschheim, 1995) and
relationship type – partnering relationship is not always the best form of cooperation
(McIvor, 2000).
The main goals of this phase are forming a competent, empowered team for the outsourcing
work and making the business plan for the outsourcing partnership
Developing phase
In the developing phase the emphasis is on the decision – whether to make or buy – and on
the actions needed after the decision has been made: negotiating the contract, considering how
the employees are affected by the decision, and making a concrete timetable for the
outsourcing.
This phase consists of eight activities:
o Screen potential partners
There are different methods for screening potential partners. Domberger (1998)
mentions three ways: Open tender, selective tender, and negotiated contracts. In open
competitive tender invitation for tender is widely advertised and tender is open to all.
In that case, the tendering is based on requirement specification that is detailed enough
that partner candidates can make their offers based on it (cf. request for proposal).
Advantages of open tender are a maximum number of potential partners and
transparency of the tendering process.
8. Selective tender is conducted in two stages. First, invitation to submit ‘expressions of
interest’ is publicized. Second, the companies that meet the qualification criteria are
invited to submit their bids. Advantages of selective tendering are lower costs of the
selection process and “greater certainty about suitability” of the partner. (Domberger,
1998.)
In negotiated contracts, based on the partner selection criteria created in earlier phase,
potential partners are contacted. First a request for information is conducted.
Circulating a request for information gives some idea of how interested the potential
partners are, what are their capabilities, corporate culture, etc. After that requests for
proposals from the suitable partner candidates can be solicited. A request for proposal
describes in detail what are the outsourcing requirements and the scope and objectives
for outsourcing. Solicitations can be made by a detailed letter in addition with a
personal contact. Advantages of this method are limited number of negotiations and
greater flexibility. (Domberger, 1998; Ellram & Edis, 1996; Embleton & Wright,
1998; Lacity & Hirschheim, 1996.)
o Evaluate candidates
In this phase the goal of both parties – the customer and the partner candidate – is to
get to know the other party and to find out if they match each other’s needs. If it’s
found out that the other party is somehow not suitable, the process is ended in this
phase and possibly started with another partner. Multiple negotiations may also be
going on concurrently.
The focus in this phase is on the formal bargaining processes and on the behaviour of
both parties during the negotiations. This includes persuading, arguing and haggling
over the terms of the potential relationship. (Ring & Van de Ven, 1994.)
The potential partners and their partnering proposals need to be evaluated by the
customer company based on the business plan created in the planning phase. The
proposals from the candidates could include a written document and a lengthy
presentation before the outsourcing team, including discussion. (Ellram & Edis, 1996)
There are different ways to assess bot the candidate and the proposal. The most
important, however, question for the customer company is: Is the supplier’s proposal a
desirable one in terms of costs, resources, and finances? (Lacity & Hirschheim, 1996)
The suitability of the future relationship can be found out from discussing e.g.
following things: What are the expectations of both parties of the relationship, do they
match (referring to the business plan made in earlier phase), what are the possible
needed investments and candidate’s readiness to invest, what are the perceived
uncertainties of the business deal, and do the company cultures match. Assessing the
nature of each other’s role and the other’s trust-wothiness is also important to do in
this phase. (Tuten & Urban, 2001; Ring & Van de Ven, 1994; Embleton & Wright,
1998) Conducting an on-site visit is also a good way for the customer company to
evaluate the partner candidate. The goal of the visit is to check that the organization
looks as good in reality as on paper. It’s good to check the processes in use, cultural
9. fit, as well as people in the company. (Embleton & Wright, 1998.) If new ideas
surface during the partner evaluation process, a good way to evaluate the candidate is
to see how the candidate is able to accommodate the ideas (Embleton & Wright,
1998).
o Decide whether make or buy
o Select the partner
When the evaluations are ready, the customer company should be able to make the
most basic decision: make or buy – insource or outsource. The decision to either
perform the activity internally or outsource it strategically to the most competent
external provider is made based on the results of benchmarking, cost analyses, and
evaluation of potential parners. (Ellram & Edis, 1996; Embleton & Wright, 1998;
McIvor, 2000; Lacity & Hirschheim, 1996) If the decision is that outsourcing process
is continued, the company has to decide which one of the partner candidates is the
most suitable for the intended relationship. (Ellram & Edis, 1996; Lacity &
Hirschheim, 1996.)
o Negoatiate the agreement
Zhu et al. (2001) list items to be considered when terms of business relationship are
being agreed. They argue that it is important that the business relationship between the
partners is clear to both parties before the agreement is completed. In this stage risks
of the relationship, liabilities, potential effects on the end customers, and product
ownerships should be considered. Warsta (2001) maintains that ‘a legal plan’ should
be made by both companies as an integral part of the company strategy. It can be then
used by the agreement negotiation team to prepare for the negotiations. This plan
contains the company’s contracting process, agreement templates used, IPR strategy,
and a description of the company contract portfolio. The more thoroughly both parties
are prepared for the negotiations, the better are the chances for good results (Warsta et
al., 2001).
This is the time of commitment, establishing the terms of the relationship and
codifying them in a formal agreement. A good agreement is often seem as a basis of a
successful relationship. It helps both parties to avoid legal impediments which might
affect the relationship harmfully and also helps both parties to clearly understand the
terms of the relationship. The entire agreement should always be reviewed by a
competent legal council prior to signing. Items to include in the agreement are e.g.
what are the services that the seller is providing to the buyer, monetary terms, escape
clauses, how to make needed changes to the agreement, warranties, guarantees,
possible audits, patent rights, publicity, and recovering from a disaster. (Ring & Van
de Ven, 1994; Zhu et al., 2001; Lacity & Hirschheim, 1996.)
o Consider the impact on employees
There are arguments that outsourcing might be more disruptive than constructive
strategy by possibly disintegrating the organization’s culture. Since social interactions
are the basis of the organization’s culture and its development, and outsourcing clearly
10. affects them, often very violently, the results of outsourcing may not always be
positive if employees are not treated in a constructive way. After talking so much
about how to arrange the outsourcing partnership technically, it is important to
remember that, in any case, an employee who does the real work is, however, the key
item to the business, and it is not possible to succeed in an outsourcing partnership if
the employees affected do not support it. That is why the impact on employees has to
be considered carefully and never taken lightly. (Kakabadse & Kakabadse, 2000; Zhu
et al., 2001.)
The impact of outsourcing on the outsourced employees, however, is not always
purely negative. It may also be seen as a positive thing when new career opportunities
open up in the partner company (Purcell, 1996). In any case, outsourcing always
affects the employees of the company – not only the ones outsourced to the partner but
also the ones left behind. The remaining employees may also suffer negative effects.
Even the term “corporate survivors’ syndrome” is used for describing how the
remaining employees also are affected. Kakabadse and Kakabadse (2001) list “fear,
insecurity, uncertainty, frustration, resentment, anger, sadness, depression, guilt,
injustice, betrayal, distrust, drop in productivity, decreased management credibility,
decreased morale, increased absenteeism, increased turnover, and employees
becoming self-centered, narrow-minded and risk averse,” as symptoms of the
survivors’ syndrome. Survivor syndrome is seen as a major factor in the failure of
many outsourcing deals. (Kakabadse & Kakabadse, 2000; Laribee & Michaels-Barr,
1994.)
It has been argued that the negative effect on employees can be lessened by the way of
managing the outsourcing (Willcocks et al., 1995). People have to be allowed to go
through a mourning process during which they try to put the newly arranged pieces of
their worklife together and try to fit themselves in somewhere. This period is needed
for both the outsourced employees as well as the remaining ones and it is not a short
one – it takes typically a year. Sensitive handling of people and these processes is
needed, reinforcing the positive sides of the change. (Kakabadse & Kakabadse, 2000.)
o Plan the outsourcing timeline
o Plan the communication
To be able to plan and handle the outsourcing process effectively, a preliminary
timeline of all outsourcing activities should be developed together with the partner
company as soon as possible. When the outsourcing is announced publicly the
timeline should be distributed inside the company to all the affected employees, and
also to all the internal and external work groups who will somehow be in contact with
the future partner. The timeline should include the dates (actual or proposed) for all
critical milestones like meetings, deadlines, employee transition dates, etc. The
timeline should be updated when changes occur and a version number should be
attached to it to determine which one is the latest document. (Zhu et al., 2001.)
To prevent spreading of rumours and misleading information it is appropriate to
communicate the facts about the outsourcing in due time, in necessary detail, and give
accurate facts, all this on planned basis. This helps in keeping the work force more
11. satisfied. If outsourcing effort takes longer time, monthly status reports are needed. It
is important to consider the content of the released information – not too much but as
much as possible, shouldn’t lack specific important information – as well as the
method of distribution to ensure that everyone receives the status reports in a timely
manner. It might be appropriate and advantageous to provide information from both
the customer and the partner. Developing a detailed and aggressive communications
plan helps in implementing of all this. (Zhu et al., 2001.)
The plan should specify what the key messages are and define the different audiences
and their needs, as well as the communication methods. These audiences include e.g.
employees who will stay in the company, employees who will be transferred to the
partner company, media, share holders, etc. The plan helps in sending the same
message to all the audiences belonging to the same group, thus ensuring that they all
are given same answers to the same questions. There are two key messages that should
always be communicated to the company internal audiences: First, there were solid
business objectives behind the outsourcing decision, and, second, the work the
outsourced employees were doing was, and still is, valuable but in the present
conditions it is best for the company to outsource it. These two messages are valid in
every outsourcing case, the rest of the communication is more company and situation
dependent. (Laribee & Michaels-Barr, 1994.)
Implementing phase
In the implementing phase the main goals are to get the outsourcing transition to go smoothly
and concentrate on establishing the actual relationship between companies.
This phase consists of three activities:
o Plan the outsourcing transition
o Deploy the outsourcing transition
The outsourcing transition is not usually a simple event. A detailed transition plan
helps both companies in managing the transition phase (Domberger, 1998). A
transition plan contains all the needed actions, step-by-step, for going through the
transition phase successfully, even the most simple or trivial ones. Writing of this plan
can start as soon as there is some idea of what is going to happen. That helps in
planning the actual transition process. The plan possibly changes when the transition
process begins, so updating of it is needed during the process. The plan is also a good
documentation of what was going on on during the transition. This kind of information
may be needed afterwards because of the unpredicted events or similar kind of
projects in future. (Zhu et alii, 2001.)
There are many possible ways to come up with the list of actions needed in the
transition plan. Different kind of meetings, brainstorming sessions, e-mails, interview
with the affected employees, etc. can be used for that. A checklist of all the actions
might help in ensuring that all the needed actions get to be done. (Zhu et alii, 2001.)
12. Top management concrete support is very important in this phase. Top management
has to be prepared to give internal presentations together with the partner and send
internal letters to all the sites that will work together with the partner company.
(Ellram & Edis, 1996.) Communication to the employees should continue until the
partner company takes the responsibility of the transferred employees and the
outsourced work.
o Establish the relationship
Establishing a team for the relationship management work is essential for both
companies. That team should be fully empowered and the team members should
become from the locations and business units which work together with the partner.
(Ellram & Edis, 1996) The team members, especially if they have been working with
the outsourced activity earlier, may need training for their work since the situation is
now very different from the situation where the activity was performed internally.
New management skills may be needed for the team members to be able to
accomplish their new task. (Embleton & Wright, 1998.) Social skills of the team
members are valuable – the social and personal bonds between two companies help in
the development of the relationship as well as in resolving the problematic situations
during the collaboration (Kern & Willcocks, 2000).
For establishing the organization and creating the management processes Ellram and
Edis (1996) have some useful practical suggestions. Relationship management team
meetings held in all the sites involved and regular conference calls among team
members give everyone possibility to influence the decisions. An online newsletter for
answering questions and giving informationg of the current situation might be useful
as well as some document for providing guidelines for the employees working in the
interface with the partner as well as for clarifying the management process. This phase
is also for establishing measures which can be used in management of the relationship.
Creating of the management organization includes identifying and empowering the
needed accounting managers, documenting contacts, and establishing interaction
patterning between companies. Initially, formally designated roles are useful since
they reduce uncertainty between parties. As time goes by, the formal roles are no
longer that important as the parties know each other in more personal level (Ring &
Van de Ven, 1994). The formal roles are, however, useful at least in problem
situations.
Managing the relationship phase
A relationship needs management to prosper and fulfill expectations set to it. Thinking
implicitly, the operational work – product or service exchange – is of course the most
important and natural part of the relationship once the collaboration relationship has been
established, as well as is the financial exchange as a result of the work done. That is not
enough, however. Relationship consists of both different operations – processes, procedures,
what needs to be done and how – but, as well, of more immaterial matters; behavioural values
which are hard to put in a form of a process, such as trust, commitment, and satisfaction. They
come in life in a relationship more in the ways people act, how they seem to value the
13. relationship, in their attitudes et cetera. They are something that needs to be shown in the
every day intercourse. There are, though, ways to consciously develop and show these matters
to the other party. It is also important to remember that a relationship cannot be managed one-
sidedly but together, in agreement (Ford et al., 2003).
This phase consists of seven activities:
o Monitor the relationship
Partners need to develop together some measuring mechanisms to be able to evaluate
the partnership (Tuten & Urban, 2001; Ellram & Edis, 1996; Embleton & Wright,
1998). The evaluations should include both numeral and qualitative measures and be
based on the original objectives identified in the business plan, as well as performance
indicators, communication flows, and characteristics of a strong relationship, such as
level of trust between the partners, flexilibility etc. (Zhu et alii, 2001; Ellram and Edis,
1996; Tuten & Urban, 2001). Formal evaluations performed regularly and in a short
enough timespan e.g. quarterly or twice a year to give the possibility to find the
problematic areas before they grow too difficult to solve (Ellram and Edis, 1996;
Tuten & Urban, 2001). Also, conflict handling gives good indication of the status of
the relationship (Tuten & Urban, 2001).
o Report the results to all the parties
The reported results should be shared with all the parties involved (Zhu et alii, 2001;
Ellram & Edis, 1996). This kind of evaluations, despite being important tools in giving
information of the partner performance, can also help in deepening the relationship
between the partners when the partners learn to know each other better and also find
ways to work together in different, and often complicated, situations (Tuten & Urban,
2001).
o Adapt culturally to the partner
Cultural adaptation – e.g. shared language, shared processes and procedures, shared
‘social and cultural traits and norms’ – between the parties is important since it helps
the staff of both companies to understand each other and co-operate without anxiety.
Cultural adaptation partly comes naturally and evolves over time as common
processes and procedures are created and they become institutionalized. However, the
adaptation is easier the parties originally have a close organizational culture. Some
conscious actions may help the adaptation. (Kern & Willcocks, 2000.)
o Exchange information
The importance of good communication with all the affected parties – be they the
actual partners or other sidosryhmä – cannot be emphasized enough. Communication
can be thought as being information exchange – there is much information that needs
to be actively exchanged between parties in order to get the relationship to work.
Cultural adaptation – understanding of unwritten rules and norms, attitudes and
knowledge of the organizations, as well as the processes and procedures – cannot
14. happen without both formal and informal information exchange. It also helps in
preventing unnecessary conflicts and in finding solutions in problematic situations,
fulfilling all the expectations, sharing a common vision, as well as increasing
flexibility. One example of information exchange is sharing and analysing of the
relationship evaluation reports by all the parties involved. Meaningful and frequent
communication is necessary to create real trust in the relationship. (Tuten & Urban,
2001; Ellram & Edis, 1996; Kern & Willcocks, 2000)
However, a question that arises again and again when speaking of information
exchange is: to what extent is a company able to trust another with the depth of
information? There is always a possibility that the partner of today becomes a
competitor of tomorrow or an ally of another competitor. (Spekman et al., 1999)
o Invest into the relationship
To give a message of commitment to the other party, some investment of time,
knowledge, and resources is needed from both parties. That gives a signal of strong
commitment, since ending the relationship would cause the other party significant
economic consequences. (Kern & Willcocks, 2000.)
o Encourage social and personal bonding
Strong social and personal bonds between individuals from both parties help in
creating an atmosphere of trust and commitment, at the same time helping in cultural
adaptation, solving of conflict situations, and achieving satisfaction. Relationship
development is also greatly dependent on the social and personal bonds and feeling of
the closeness between individuals, even to the extent of diminishing the economic
values. (Kern & Willcocks, 2000.)
o Consider the future of the relationship
The underlying idea of an outsourcing partnership is that once the relationship has
been started, it won’t be terminated for light reasons – meaning that it has usually
meant to remain in effect for years. However, with time, expectations of the parties
may change, technological advances may come to existence, misunderstandings and
conflicts may arise; these often cause need for re-thinking the terms of the
relationship. Maybe there is simply a “desire to take the partnership ‘to the next
level’” (Tuten & Urban, 2001). Anyhow, renegotiations are needed. Often
supplemental agreements fulfill the needs and the original agreement can be left
untouched, thus preserving the relationship. (Ring & Van de Ven, 1994; Tuten &
Urban, 2001.)
Some day usually one or both parties realize that the time has come to dissolve the
relationship. It may be – as often is – because of the business deal has been completed,
or because the relationship no longer fulfills the expectations set to it, or – in the least
attractive case – because on of the partners has somehow breached the agreement.
(Ring & Van de Ven, 1994; Ellram & Edis, 1996; Tuten & Urban, 2001.)
15. Summary
Research on interorganizational relationships is highly fragmented. It can be found from, for
example, sociology, economics, anthropology, psychology, marketing, organizational
behaviour, strategic management, and entrepreneurship (Smith et al., 1995). It’s no wonder
that terminology and units of analysis vary notably, as well as the theoretical basis of
research. This research have been influenced by the (general) management literature on
outsourcing, specifically information systems and information technology outsourcing
literature, strategic sourcing literature, strategic partnering literature, and marketing and
management research on interorganizational relationships. The model presented above intends
to give a more comprehensive picture of the outsourcing partnership phenomenon by
combining different views of interorganizational relationship research.
Conclusions
Outsourcing partnerships – amongst many other forms of collaboration – have become a
popular and effective way of managing company growth and giving companies a possibility
to concentrate on their core competences. Many different types of outsourcing models have
been presented in the literature; however, they do not usually show the whole life cycle of an
outsourcing partnership but only parts of it.
In this paper insights from outsourcing and partnering models – mainly from information
systems outsourcing point of view – have been put together with the models having a
relationship approach to produce a synthesis model which gives a better understanding of the
outsourcing partnership life cycle. Even though the resulting model is still preliminary and
would greatly benefit from testing with empiric material it is one step closer to showing a big
picture of the outsourcing partnership phenomenon anyhow.
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