1. The document discusses various models of the consulting process including Schein's problem solving model, Lippitt and Lippitt's consulting process model, Block's flawless consulting model, and the systemic consulting loop model. 2. It also outlines different roles consultants can take including expert, pair of hands, and collaborative according to Schein as well as objective observer, process counselor, fact finder, identifier of alternatives, joint problem solver, trainer/educator, information specialist, and advocate according to Lippitt and Lippitt. 3. The models and roles are intended to help consultants match their approach to the complexity of the project and needs of the client.

1. Consulting Process Models

2. Project Complexity and Consulting Competence
Systemic Loop
Systemic
(Königswieser & Consulting
Hillebrand)
Process Know-how
Process
Consulting Process (Lippitt & Lippitt) / Moderation
Flawless Consulting (Block)
Problem Solving
Problem Solving Model (Schein)
Simple Projects More Complex Projects Large-scale OD Projects
Complexity

3. A Model of the stages of Problem Solving (Schein)
Two cycles of activity
4
The fist cycle consists of:
Action Planning
1. Problem formulation
2. Producing proposals for solution
1 3. Forecasting the consequences of
Problem solutions proposed or testing
Formulation solutions and evaluating them
conceptually before taking action
The second cycle involves:
Felt 2 4. Action planning
Need Producing
5. Action steps; and
3 Proposals
for Solution 6. Evaluation of outcomes; often
6 Forecasting 5 leading back into the fist cycle of
Evaluating consequences, tes Taking
ting proposals problem identification
Outcomes Action
Steps
Schein, E. H. (1988). Process Consultation. Vol. 1 (Rev. Ed.). Reading, Ma.: Addison-Wesley.

4. The Consulting Process (Lippitt & Lippitt)
Work Focus 1 Work Focus 5 Work Focus 8 Work Focus 9 Work Focus 11 Work Focus 14
Making First Contact Identifying desired Using force-field Projecting Goals Taking successful Designing continuity
1. The potential client outcomes diagnosis: To set meaningful action: supports:
2. The potential To achieve a wider Identify the forces that goals, both the Helping people develop Develop a plan for a
consultant perspective on possible impede movement to the consultant and the client the skills necessary to continuing review of
3. A third party goals and desirable current goals and forces must have a clear increase their chances of events, including a wide
outcomes that facilitate such picture of a preferred achieving success in the circle of personnel from
movement and feasible future actions they take the client system
Work Focus 2 Support celebrations of
Helping Identify & Clarify small successes
the need for change (process Work Focus 6 Work Focus 10
of exploration) Determining who Planning for action Work Focus 15
should do what and involvement Establishing termination
Determine who the Work Focus 12 plans:
Devise a sequence of
client system is Evaluating and guiding Training an insider to
Work Focus 3 steps towards each
Determine if there is a feedback: take over the functions
Exploring the readiness for goal (identifying
difference between the Elicit feedback about initiated
change effort: specifically what
client system and the progress and involve Termination celebration
Consultant explores time, should be done)
office who pays the necessary people in the for the final product of a
energy, commitment of client
bills assessment of this collaborative effort
system
feedback Periodic maintenance
Client explores capability,
sensitivity, credibility of the plan
potential consultant
Work Focus 7
Work Focus 13
Clarifying time
Work Focus 4 Revising action and
perspective and
Exploring the potential for mobilizing additional
accountability
working together: resources:
Agreement about
Consultant may propose a Use feedback to re-
milestones at which
period of testing for examine goals, revise
progress of the
compatibility before making action strategies, etc.
working relationship
mutual commitments for
will be reviewed
long-term working
relationship
Lippitt, G., & Lippitt, R. (1986). The consulting process in action (2nd ed.). San Diego, CA: Pfeiffer & Company

5. Flawless Consulting (Block)
Phase 1. Entry and Contracting
Matching Wants and Offers
Phase 2. Discovery and Dialogue
Symptom or underlying problem
Phase 3. Feedback and Decision to Act
the report and presentation
Phase 4. Engagement and Implementation
the main events
Phase 5. Extension, Recycle, or Termination
Block, P. H. 2000. Flawless consulting (2nd ed.) San Francisco: Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer.

6. The Systemic Process Consulting Loop
(Königswieser & Hillebrand)
Königswieser, R., Hillebrand, M. (2005): Systemic Consultancy in Organizations. Concepts – Tools – Innovations. Heidelberg: Carl-Auer.

7. Consultant Roles

8. Eight Roles of a Consultant (Lippitt & Lippitt)
1. Objective Observer. In this role the consultant does not express personal beliefs or ideas and does not assume responsibility for
the work or the result of that work. Instead, the consultant observes the client’s behavior and provides feedback; the client
alone is responsible for the direction that is ultimately chosen.
2. Process Counselor. This role consists of observing the client’s problem-solving processes and offering suggestions for
improvement. The consultant and the client jointly diagnose the client’s process, and the consultant assists the client in
acquiring whatever skills are necessary to continue diagnosing the process.
3. Fact Finder. In this role the consultant serves as a researcher, collecting and interpreting information in areas of importance to
the client. Fact finding enables the consultant to develop an understanding of the client’s processes and performance; as a result
of the insights gained, the consultant and the client can evaluate the effectiveness of a change process in terms of solving the
client’s problem.
4. Identifier of Alternatives and Linker to Resources. The consultant identifies alternative solutions to a problem; establishes
criteria for evaluating each alternative; determines the likely consequences of each alternative; and then links the client with
resources that may be able to help in solving the problem. However, the consultant does not assist in selecting the final
solution.
5. Joint Problem Solver. The consultant works actively with the client to identify and solve the problem at hand, often taking a
major role in defining the results. The consultant also may act as a third-party mediator when conflict arises during the
problem-solving process.
6. Trainer/Educator. The consultant provides instruction, information, or other kinds of directed learning opportunities for the
client. As a trainer/educator, the consultant must be able to assess training needs, write learning objectives, design learning
experiences and educational events, employ a range of educational techniques and media, and function as a group facilitator.
7. Information Specialist. The consultant serves as content expert for the client, often defining “right” and “wrong” approaches
to a problem. The client is primarily responsible for defining the problem and the objectives of the consultation, and the
consultant plays a directive role until the client is comfortable with the approach that has been recommended.
8. Advocate. The consultant consciously strives to have the client move in a direction desired by the consultant. In the most
directive of the eight roles, the consultant uses power and influence to impose his or her ideas and values about either content
or process issues. As a content advocate, the consultant tries to influence the client’s choice of goals and means; as a process
advocate, the consultant tries to influence the methodology underlying the client’s problem-solving behavior.
Lippitt, G., & Lippitt, R. (1986). The consulting process in action (2nd ed.). San Diego, CA: Pfeiffer & Company

9. Three Roles of a Consultant (Schein)
1. Expert Role.
 The manager elects to play an inactive role
 Decisions on how to proceed are made by the consultant, on the basis of his or her expert judgment
 Information needed for problem analysis is gathered by the consultant
 Technical control rests with the consultant
 Collaboration is not required
 Two-way communication is limited
 The consultant plans and implements the main events
 The manager’s role is to judge and evaluate after the fact
 The consultant’s goal is to solve the immediate problem
2. Pair-of-Hands Role.
 The consultant takes a passive role
 Decisions on how to proceed are made by the manager
 The manager selects methods for data collection and analysis
 Control rests with the manager
 Collaboration is not really necessary
 Two-way communication is limited
 The manager specifies change procedures for the consultant to implement
 The manager’s role is to judge and evaluate from a close distance
 The consultant’s goal is to make the system more effective by the application of specialized knowledge
3. Collaborative Role.
 The consultant and the manager work to become interdependent
 Decision making is bilateral
 Data collection and analysis are joint efforts
 Control issues become matters for discussion and negotiation
 Control issues become matters for discussion and negotiation
 Communication is two-way
 Implementation responsibilities are determined by discussion and agreement
 The consultant’s goal is to solve problems so they stay solved