This document discusses several theories of knowledge management. It introduces the multi-perspective theory, which views knowledge management from technical, organizational, and personal perspectives. It also describes the triology model, which includes the OODA loop model, SECI model, and Oinas-Kakkonen model for understanding knowledge management processes. Finally, it discusses the KISARD model and knowledge management hypercube strategy.

1. CHAPTER 2
KNOWLEDGE
MANAGEMENT
THEORIES

2. KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT THEORIES
Knowledge is becoming as intellectual asset, valuable commodity,
product and key to control the many emerging problems.
Knowledge Characteristics
 Knowledge is tacit.
 Knowledge is action-oriented.
 Knowledge is supported by rules.
 Knowledge is constantly changing.
 Use of Knowledge doesn’t consume it.
 Transferal of Knowledge doesn’t result in losing it.
 Knowledge is abundant, but the ability to use is scarce.
 Much of the Organization’s valuable knowledge walks out the
door at the end of the day.

3. KNOWLEDGE DIVIDE LINKAGES
1. Lab-to-Lab
This will involve organizing a consortium of scientific
institutions and data providers.
2. Lab to Land
This will involve symbolic linkages between the providers
of information and the users
3. Land to Lab
Traditional Knowledge and wisdom among rural and tribal
families concerning sustainable management of natural
resources, land, water.
4. Land to Land
Lateral learning among rural families; such learning has
high credibility because the knowledge coming from a
fellow farm woman or man.

4. INTELLECTURAL CAPITAL MANAGEMENT
 Internet and the World Wide Web have made unlimited
sources of knowledge.
 ICM are of business value to the Organization.
 Intellectual Capital Assets viz., Patents, Intellectual
Property
 Know-how, Know-why, experience and expertise (Klenin,
1998; Stewart, 1997)
 Representative of a person’s real thinking – contextual
information, opinions, stories…
 KM both the capturing and storing the K Perspectives
 KM is the deliberate and systematic technology, people,
processes and structure of innovation.
 Creating, sharing, applying knowledge and feeding
lessons.

5. INTELLECTUAL CAPITAL GROWS WITH USE
Today’s Intellectual Capital Future Intellectual Capital
Knowledge Management Knowledge Management
Social
Capital
Human
Capital
Structural
Capital
Social
Capital Human
Capital
Structural
Capital
ORGANIZATIONAL
LEARNING

6. INTER DISCIPLINARHY NATURE OF KM
1. Organizational Science
2. Cognitive Science
3. Linguistics and Computational linguistics
4. Information Technologies – Knowledge based Systems,
Document & Information Management, Electronic
performance Support Systems, Date base
Technologies.
5. Information and Library Science
6. Technical Writing and Journalism
7. Anthropology and Sociology
8. Education and Training
9. Storytelling and Communication Studies
10. Collaborative Technologies – Computer Supported
Collaborative work, Groupware, Intranets, Extranets,
Portals and other web technologies

7. ADVANTAGE OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
 Multidisciplinary nature of KM represents a double-edged
sword.
 Journalist can quickly adapt his skill set to the capture of
knowledge from experts.
 KM cannot said to be a separate discipline with a unique
body of knowledge.
 Knowledge is more subjective based on the individual
values, perceptions and experiences.
 Data: Content that is directly observable or verifiable
 Information: Content that represents analyzed data
 Knowledge: Information Management is the ability of KM to
address knowledge in all forms, notably tacit knowledge
and explicit knowledge.

9. IDENTIFICATION OF KEY ATTRIBUTIES OF KM
 Generating New Knowledge
 Accessing valuable knowledge from outside sources
 Using accessible knowledge in decision making
 Embedding knowledge in processes, products and/or
services
 Representing knowledge in documents, databases
and software
 Facilitating knowledge growth through culture and
incentives
 Transferring existing knowledge into other parts of the
organization
 Measuring the value of knowledge assets and/or
Impact of knowledge management
 Tacit Knowledge resides within individuals & difficult
to articulate
 Notion of added value that can be codified and
disseminated ( Polanyi, 1966)

10. DEVELOPMENT PHASES IN KM HISTORY
• 1800 – Industrialization
• 1850 – Transportation
• 1900 – Communication
• 1950 – Computerization
• 1980 – Virtualization
• 2000 + + Personalization
• Birth of the Internet 1969
• Launch of ARPANET allowed Scientist and Researcher to
communicate large data sets.
• Internet and World Wide Web

12. KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT MILESTONES
YEAR ENTITY EVENT
 1980 – DEC,CMU XCON Expert System
 1986 – Dr.K.Wiig Coined KM concept at UN
 1989 – Consulting firms start Internal KMProjects
 1991 – HBR article Nonaka & Takeuchi
 1993 – Dr.K.Wiig First KM Book Published
 1994 – KM Network First KM Conference
 Mid- 1990s – Consulting firms start offering KM
Services
 Late 1990s – Key vertical Industries Implement KM
start seeing benefits
 2000 – 2003 Academia KM Courses/Programs in
Universities with KM texts

13. FROM PHYSICAL ASSETS TO KNOWLEDGE ASSETS
 Traditionally Airline Organization’s asset included
in the Physical Inventory.
 Software enables seat reservation system not
only logistics but “yield management system”
 Non-Physical Assets such as Just-in-time (JIT)
inventory systems are more value.
Intellectual Capital
1.Competence-Skills to achieve high performance
2. Capability-Strategic Skills to integrate
competencies
3. Technologies-Tools & Methods to produce
physical results

14. ORGANIZATION PERSPECTIVES ON KM
1.Business Perspective – Why, Where and to what
extent the organization exploit knowledge in order
to consider the strategies, products, services,
alliances, acquisition etc.
2.Management Perspective – determining,
organizing, directing, facilitating and monitoring
knowledge-related practices to fulfill the
objectives.
3.Hand-on Perspective – applying the expertise to
conduct explicit knowledge related work or tasks.

15. WHY IS KM IMPORTANT TODAY?
1.Globalization of Business- Organization are more global-
multisite, multilingual & multicultural in nature.
2.Leaner Organization – Faster performance due to smarter
Knowledge workers increased workload
3. Corporate Amnesia – Problems of Knowledge places
continuous learning demands of the knowledge worker do
not spend his time in the same organization.
4.Technological Advances – IT measured in minutes, not
weeks. Filtering over 200 emails, faxes, voicemail daily
.“Pavlovian Reflex” – exhibit new mail or ringing of the
phone demands immediate attention.
Knowledge workers are increasingly being asked to “to
think on their feet”

16. KM FOR INDIVIDUALS, COMMUNITIES AND ORGANIZATIONS
For the Individual KM
 Helps jobs, save time, decision making and Problem
solving, Keep up to date, contribute Challenges &
Opportunities
For the Community KM
 Develops Professional skill, peer-to-peer mentoring,
networking, code of ethics and common language.
For the Organization KM
 Drive Strategy, Cross-fertilizes ideas, builds organization
memory

17. KM FOR INDIVIDUALS, COMMUNITIES AND ORGANIZATIONS
For the Individual KM
 Helps jobs, save time, decision making and Problem
solving, Keep up to date, contribute Challenges &
Opportunities
For the Community KM
 Develops Professional skill, peer-to-peer mentoring,
networking, code of ethics and common language.
For the Organization KM
 Drive Strategy, Cross-fertilizes ideas, builds organization
memory

18. KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT THEORIES
1.Multi Perspective Theory
2. Triology Model
2.1.OODA Loop Model
2.2. SECI Model
2.3. Oinas-Kakkonen Model
3. KISARD Model
4. Knowledge Management Hypercube Strategy

19. 1. MULTI PERSPECTIVE THEORY (TOP)
Technical Perspective (T)
 KMS strategy is mainly discussed in information
technology and communication area comprising of
network infrastructure, intelligent systems, technology
equipment and internet/intranet tools
Organizational Perspective (O)
 KMS research is described by social science and business
management discipline related to the context.
 Business direction and process within its environment that
supported KMS technology.
Personal Perspective (P)
 KMS is concerned on the issues related to human factor
within the context comprising psychology and sociology
aspects.
 It helps researcher to understand the complex human
issues of the organization

20. KNOWLEDGE MANGEMENT PROCESS

21. 2. TRIOLOGY MODEL
2.1.OODA Loop Model
 Not much is understood about how knowledge is created
in organizations or how the knowledge creation process
can be managed (Tsoukas and Mylonopoulos, 2004).
 However, some tend to believe that a single model devised
to work on knowledge creation is enough to work in all
situations, similar to the theorems developed in
Mathematics.
 Knowledge is regarded as important for creating
organizational value and enhancing organizational
competitiveness, especially in an unpredictable
environment (Nonaka, 1994).
 Same is very true for learning organizations. Today, in the
age of knowledge economy and knowledge is the key to
success of the individual, the organization and even the
nation as a whole.

22. 2. TRIOLOGY MODEL
 The focus here is to understand three models of
Knowledge Management sectors of society at different
times.
 2.1.The OODA Loop Model (for Observe, Orient, Decide and
Act), a concept applied to the combat operations process,
often at tactical, operational tactical and grand strategic
level in the military is also adapted today by commercial
operations.
 2.2.The SECI Model (Socialization, Externalization,
Combination and Internalization) was developed in 1991 by
Professor Ikujiro Nonaka of Japan Institute of Science and
Technology and
 2.3.Oinas-Kakukonen Model (Comprehension,
Communication, Conceptualilization and Collaboration)
was proposed in 2004 by Harri Oinas-Kukkonen of the
University of Oulu, Finland and Stanford University, USA.

23. 2.1. OODA LOOP MODEL
• John Boyd emphasized that learning is a product of
decision making process within the mind of the person.
Thus, understanding this process and creating a shorter
and better way to create learning must be the main focus,
in order for the organization to ensure that learners will be
able to demonstrate their learning at the fastest rate
possible and gain advantage against the enemy. In our
case the enemy is time.
• According to John Boyd, this decision making process
within the person’s mind can be classified into a Process
Loop. This means that a human being can learn and come
up with his best decision using a single process loop. He
called this as OODA Loop, which is derived from, Observe,
Orient, Decide and Act (OODA).

24. 2.1. OODA LOOP MODEL
Observe
• John Boyd Theory contends that the very first step to this
process is for the person to observe the variables around
him. These variables can be events and information that
the person notices around him. He notes it in order to the
preposition his thinking to the next phase of the process,
which is orientation.
Orient
• After noticing the various informations around him, the
learner now positions himself by taking into account his
own previous knowledge, culture and traditions, and new
information. The learner then analyses the new information
versus his own previous knowledge, and connects them
through synthesis. This is the phase where the learner
understands what is going on around him. At this point, the
learner has not created new knowledge, but readies
himself for the next phase of the process, which is to
decide.

25. 2.1. OODA LOOP MODEL
Decide
• At this point, the learner has gained significant level of
understanding regarding the new information around him,
he now understands what is going on and prepares himself
to adapt towards the new situation. So, the next step is to
decide, based on his new experience, if he is going to
make the new experience a part of his new knowledge.
Should the learner decide to neglect the new experience,
his next process is to get back into the observation phase
and restart the process. If the learner accepts the new
experience as part of his new knowledge, he is now
prepared to demonstrate his new learning to his
environment.
Act
• After deciding the best course of action to the given
situation, the learner quickly moves into putting that
decision into action. This is the time that learner
demonstrates his understanding of the given situation to
the best of his ability and knowledge constructed within
his mind.

26. 2.2.SECI MODEL
• According to Professor Ikujiro Nonaka, knowledge creation is a
spiraling process of interactions between explicated and tacit
knowledge. The interactions between the explicit and tacit
knowledge lead to the creation of new knowledge. The
combination of the two categories makes it possible to
conceptualize four conversion patterns. Nonaka also suggests a
different approach which facilitates the knowledge conversion
for his SECI Knowledge Creation Model.
Socialization
• This mode enables the conversion of tacit knowledge through
interaction between individuals. One important point to note
here is that an individual can acquire tacit knowledge without
language. Apprentices work with their mentors and learn
craftsmanship, not through language but by observation,
limitation and practice. In a business setting, on-the-job training
uses the same principle. The key to acquiring tacit knowledge is
experience. Without some form of shared experience, it is
extremely difficult for people to share each other’s thinking
process.

27. 2.2. SECI MODEL

28. 2.2.SECI MODEL
Externalization
• Externalization requires the expression of tacit knowledge and
its translation into comprehensible forms that can be
understood by others. In philosophical terms, the individual
transcends the inner and other boundaries of the self.
• During the externalization stage of the knowledge creation
process, individual commits to the group, and thus becomes
one with the group. The sum of the individual’s intentions and
ideas fuse and become integrated with the group’s mental
world.
• In practice, externalization is supported by two keys factors.
First, the articulation of tacit knowledge, that is, the conversion
of tacit into explicit knowledge, involves techniques that help to
express one’s ideas or images as words, concepts, Figurative
language (such as metaphors, analogies or narratives) and
visuals. Dialogues, listening and contributing to the benefit of all
participants, strongly support externalization.

29. 2.2.SECI MODEL
Combination
• Combination involves the conversion of explicit knowledge into
more complex sets of explicit knowledge. In this stage, the key
issues are communication and diffusion processes and the
systemization of knowledge. Here, new knowledge generated in
the externalization stage transcends the ground in analogues or
digital signals.
Internalization
• Internalization of newly created knowledge is the conversion of
explicit knowledge into the organization’s tacit knowledge. This
requires the individual to identify the knowledge relevant for
one’s self within the organizational knowledge. That again
requires finding one’s self in a larger entity. Learning by doing,
training and exercise allows the individual to access the
knowledge realm of the group and the entire organization.
• In practice, internalization relies on two dimensions: First,
explicit knowledge has to be embodied in action and practice.
Thus, the process of internalizing explicit knowledge actualizes
concepts or methods about strategy, tactics, innovation or
improvement. For example, training programmes in larger
organizations help the trainees to understand the organization
and themselves in the whole.

30. 2.3.OINAS-KUKKONEN MODEL
According to Harri Oinas-Kukkonen, there are four phases or sub-
processes in the knowledge creation process.
Comprehension
• The author contends that learning begins with comprehension.
He defines it as a process of surveying and interacting with the
external environment, integrating the resulting intelligent with
other project knowledge on an ongoing basis in order to
identify problems, needs and opportunities, embodying explicit
knowledge in tacit knowledge, learning by processes. New
concepts or methods can thus be learned in virtual situation.
Communication
• The Oinas-Kukkonene Model says that communication is a
process of experiences between people and thereby creating
tacit knowledge in the form of mental models and technical
skills. It produces dialog records, which emphasize the needs
and opportunities, integrating the dialog slang with resulting
decisions with other project knowledge an ongoing basis. At
this stage, the learner gains new information through
communication with other people, these results in creation of
tacit knowledge that is shared by the people around the learner.

31. 2.3.OINAS-KUKKONEN MODEL
Conceptualization
• According to the Oinas-Kukkonen Model, conceptualization is a
collective reflection process articulating tacit knowledge to form
explicit concepts and systemizing the concepts into a
knowledge system. It produces knowledge products of a project
team, which form a more or less comprehensive picture of the
project in hand, and are iteratively and collaboratively
developed; may include proposals, specifications, descriptions
work breakdown structures, milestones, timeliness, staffing,
facility requirements, budgets etc rarely a one-shot effort.
Collaboration
• With new explicit knowledge, the learners are now ready to work
together into putting their conceptualized information together,
using teamwork, and demonstrate the new knowledge they have
successfully created. All of this revolves around, and is a
product of, collective intelligence of the learners involved.
• In other words, the learners now create their own product,
thereby converting their developed tacit knowledge into explicit
knowledge. The learners can effectively concretize their
understanding in a piece of paper or project.
• Educational model has been derived from the integration of the
OODA Loop Model, SECI Model and Oinas-Kukkonen Model.

32. 2.3.OINAS-KUKKONEN MODEL
Integration of Three Models
• Based on the integration of the three models on knowledge
creation process, a conceptual knowledge creation model
is proposed that is tailored for classroom instructional
application. Knowledge Creation process can be simplified
into three phases. Thus, the new model would be able to
simplify the concepts and processes specially designed for
classroom learning.
• In the workplace environment, people have the mindset to
perform their jobs and earn living. They expect to work and
not learn the way they did in school. That is why they don’t
carry textbooks, notebooks, calculators and other learning
materials paraphernalia and they do not expect professors
or teachers to lecture them on a certain subject. Workers
are oriented to work. That is why, in order to make the
workplace environment a learning organization, orientation
or externalization was included in the business
organization and the academic world today.

33. Integration of Three Models
• The new Trilogy Model of Knowledge is composed of three
processes the learner must undergo before he can develop
and demonstrate his new knowledge. These are the
observation and orientation, adaptation and absorption
and manifestation and substantiation.
• Source: DJ.Collis and Montgomery, Competing on
Resources, HBR, July-August, 1995.
Observation and Orientation
Adaptation and Absorption
Manifestation and Substantiation

34. INFORMATION SYSTEM AS KNOWLEDGE SOURCES

35. 3.KISARD MODEL
• AKIS system integrates farmers,
Agricultural Educators, Researchers,
Extensionists to harness the Knowledge
and Information from various sources for
better farming and better livelihood.
• The reality can be emphasized in
“Knowledge Triangle”. Teaching, Research
and Extension are three important
integrating aspect for better performance
among these actors as well as support
systems that facilitate the relationship to
achieve the target of responsibilities.

36. 3. KISARD MODEL
RESEARCH EXTENSION
SUPPORT
SYSTEMS
EDUCATION
AGRICULTURAL
PRODUCERS

37. 3. KISARD MODEL
An Idealized AKIS Model
Support Systems
Policy Advocacy
Credit Facilitation
Market Outlet
Price Negotiation
Information Dissemination
Political Empowerment
Exchange of Experience
Supply of Inputs
Supply of Animal Health Services
Supply of Artificial Insemination
Breeding Stocks

38. 4. HYBERCUBE STRATEGY
DIMENSION 7
BUSINESS
PROCESS FOCUS
•Single Process
• Selected Process
• All Process
DIMENSION 1
ORGANIZATIONAL
FOCUS
•Internal Knowledge
• External Knowledge
DIMENSION 6
TARGET GROUPS
•Selected Group
• All Employees
DIMENSION 2
SOCIO TECHNOLOGICAL
FOCUS
•Codification
• Personalization
DIMENSION 3
SPEED LEARNING
•Slow Learning
• Fast Learning
DIMENSION 4
ORGANISATIONAL
KNOWLEDGE BASE
•Narrow Knowledge base
•Broad Knowledge base
DIMENSION 5
DEGREE OF
INNOVATION
•Exploitation
• Exploration
KNOWLEDGE
MANAGEMENT
STRATEGY

39. 4. HYBERCUBE STRATEGY
DIMENSION 1
Internal- Readily available within organization
External – Publications, Universities, Govt.
departments, Vendors
DIMENSION 2
Codification- Knowledge is codified and stored
in databases
Personalization-knowledge is tied to the person
who developed
DIMENSION 3
Slow Learning- Integration of different
knowledge threads
Fast Learning – one singly knowledge thread

40. 4. HYBERCUBE STRATEGY
DIMENSION 4
Narrow Based Knowledge – can lead to core rigidity
Broad Based Knowledge – combination of different knowledge
threads
DIMENSION 5
Exploitation – Incremental Learning
Exploration – Radical Learning
DIMENSION 6
Selected Groups – Target group are the Agricultural Farmers in
particular regions.
All Employees – Employees altogether
DIMENSION 7
Single – Individual’s Responsibility handling of knowledge
Selected – Patents, Operational Management, Customer relations,
Structural Knowledge assets
All Process – Integrated within the overall business strategy in
parallel with other strategies

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