Adhesives and mortars in ancient india

By
Dr. A. S. Nene
Professor of Civil Engineering (Retd)
VNIT Nagpur
E mail-prof.ashok.nene@gmail.com
Nagpur 15th March 2019

Part A- Introduction to
Shilpashatra

1. Shilpa - The word is derived from a root
–Sheel samadhau and literally means any
thing that pleases your mind. Sage Bhrugu
has defined Shilpa as creation of different
materials with the help of machines ,
techniques and arts.
3
Definitions
नानविधानाां िस्तूना यांत्राणाां कल्पसांपदाम्।
धातूनाां साधनानाां च िास्तूनाां शिल्पसां्ञिततम्॥
भ्रुगुसांहिता अ. १

2. Shilpa Shastra - The science related
to a particular subject comprising
different techniques skills or arts.
3. Shilpa Samhita –A compilation of
rules and procedure related to a
particular science.
4.Vidya –A techniques related to
creation or execution of a Shilpa.
5.Kala - An art or skill acquired by
practice and experience. Even a blind of
deaf person can master any particular
skill.
4

Three volumes of Shilpashastra
Khanda Part
A.Dhatu Khand Resources Part
B. Sadhan Khand Transportation Part
C. Vastu Khand Habitation Part
5
कृ षीर्जल खननश्चेनत धातुखांडां त्रत्रधाशिदां॥
नौकारथाग्ननयानानाां कृ नत साधनमुच्चते ॥
िेश्मप्राकारनगररचना िास्तुसां्ञिततां ॥ भ्रुगुसांहिता अ.१

A-Dhatu Khand A- Resources Part
1-Krushi Shastra 1-Biological resources
2-Jala Shastra 2- Water resources
3-Khani Shastra 3.Mining resources
6

B- Sadhan Khand B-Transportation Part
4-Nauka Shastra 4-Water Transport
5-Ratha Shastra 5-Surface Transport
6-Viman Shastra 6-Air / Space Transport
7

C- Vastu Khand C- Habitation Part
7-Vastu Shastra 7-Dwelling
8-Prakar Shastra 8-Forts & Castles
9-Nagar Rachana Shastra 9-Town Planning
Common Shastra
10-Yantra Shastra 10 Machines &
Mechanism
8

Contents of Shilpashtra compiled by sage
Bhrugu
•Subjects - 51
•Volumes - 03
•Sciences - 10
•Techniques -32
•Arts - 64
10

1920- Madras manuscript library was established. Shri
Ramaraja, a civil judge, was requested to compile
information related to Shilpashastra .
1833- A thesis entitled as “Essay on architecture of the
Hindus”was submitted to Royal Asiatic Society of
London.
1876 - Rev. J.E. Kornas translated a Sanskrit text
“Mayamat-shilpashastra”.
1900- A.V.Tyagraj Ayyar compiled a book entitled
“Indian architecture of the shilp shastras of India”
11
Time Line

Nagpur -15 March 2019
1927- Dr Prasanna kumar Acharya compiled
3000 pages encyclopedia named as “Manasara -
an encyclopedia of Hindu architecture.
1930-1950-Many ancient texts were edited and
published and new generation of research
workers started working on this subject.
Dr.Dixitar, Dr.Raghawan, Dr.Madayya, Rao saheb
K.V.Vaze and Shri G.G.Joshi(Nagpur) are few
prominent names

Eight ancient Indian tools of a Sthapati

Mud, bricks, lime, stones, wood, metals
and precious stones should be used in
construction of houses - Mayamat
Ancient Building Materials

The unique features of Shilpa shastra
Sixteen Sanskaras or processes of
transformation for building material,
starting from Garbhdaan to Shraadha.

Sixteen Sanskara(s) for Lime
1. Garbhadan – Searching lime stone sources
2. Pusamvasan – Checking the extent of lime stone
3. Seemantoyan - Checking the grade of lime stone
4. Jatakarm- Preparation of quick lime
5. NamakaraN- Naming the lime brand
6. Vedhan- Sieving of Quick lime
7. Darshan – Testing the quality of lime
8. Prashan – Checking setting of lime

9. Chudakarm – Checking the strength of lime
10. Upanayan- Comparing with standard lime
11. Sankar –Addition of sand, brick powder etc.
12. Karmapravesh – field use of lime
13. Prasthan – collection of unused lime
14. Antyavithi – Discarding unsuitable lime
15. Sapindi- Preserve data of standard lime
16. Shradha – Exhibition of samples of lime work

ChaturvarNya or division into four classes.
Instead of designating class I,II, III or IV. Our
sages have designated them as BraamhaN,
Khyatiriya, Vaishya and Shudra and it has no
bearing on caste system of Manusmruti.
ChaturvarNya

Class
I II III IV
Material
Soil White Red Yellow Black
Living
things
Human Two
legged
Four
legged
Serpents
Metals Gold Silver Copper Iron etc
Rocks Igneous Sediment
ary
Metamorp
hic
Sample classification

Visual classification tests on
building materials
•VarN – color or level
•Linga-gender-indicator of intrinsic property
•Age- duration after birth
•Avastha –present condition

िणजशलांगियोिस्था: पररक्षचबलाबल ।
यथायोनयांयथास्थानां सांस्कारान्कारयोसुधी: ॥
भ्रुगुसांहिता अ.४
Visual tests on building materials

श्िेता रक्ता च पीताच कृ ष्णा िूस्तु चतुविजधा ।
तेषामाद्यास्त्रयोग्राह्याश्च्तुथी िग्र्जता बुधै: ॥
िृगुसांहिता अ.४

Gender (Linga)
It material has its own gender or intrinsic property
(Strength/weakness).
Pullingi- Masculine: Strong in compression, crystalline, solid,
uniform, stable, soft outside but hard inside, light but strong etc.
Streelingi-Feminine: Strong in bending, fibrous, broad at one end
and lean at other end ,heavy and strong, dependant on other,
Hard outside but soft inside.
Napusakalingi –Neutral : Soft/Hard throughout , weak,
heterogeneous, of no use.

Vaya-Age- There are five life spans,
infant, child, Young, old and death.
बालत्िां कौमारां यौिनमथ िाधजक्यां च ननधनां च ।
पांचियाांस्तेयेयानांत्येष्टै शिष्टानीष्टानन ॥
िृगुसांहिता अ.४

Awatha- physical state : There are four states
1. Prakruti –natural property since birth.
2. Sanskruti- a property developed by efforts
3. Sankruti- Additional quality developed to
overcome weakness.
4. Vikruti- defects attained after extreme use.

Part B – Binders or Stabilizers
•Mud plaster/ Brick earths/ Foundry Soils.
•Binders for Brick / Stone masonry / stone
softening.

Soil stabilization
Functions of soil plasticizers
• Increase the workability with minimum water
content
• Increase the water repellent property
• Increase the strength by increasing the
density.
• Impart glazing to pottery products.
27

Ancient plasticizers can be grouped as
Extracts of Herbs, Fruits and tree barks
Trifala- Aamla, Hirda and Behada1
Wood apple2, Holy tree fruit3
Barks- Khadir4, Arjun trees
28

Natural fibers
Cotton, coir, wool, silk cotton or jute
29

Natural polymers
Cow Dung, Jaggaery, Coconut water, Eggs, Green
Algae, rice husk, burnt coconut shell
30

Adobe floors
Floors made from poured and toweled mud,
are softer and warmer to the touch than tiles
or cement, and carry the rich colors of
natural earth. Various additives have been
tested to make adobe floors easy to create and
maintain. One such additive is made from
psyllium hulls ( Isabgol.) This additive makes
the mud easy to work and acts as a binder
when the floor dries. It reduces cracking and
increases strength.

Bricks and Roofing tiles
Mix extracts of barks of trees (Pipal and
Agaru) in wet clay . Knead the clay daily
for 30 day and the use for bricks or
roofing tiles.

Earthen pots
Mix floor of Satu, powder of Amaksh
,Tatwasi and coconut water to clay in a
proportion of 8 parts of clay and 1 part
of admixtures.

Ceramic pots
Prepare a mixture of Swesha,Guggul and
Kunda grass (one sixteenth of clay) and
curd (one eleventh of clay). Apply this
mixture to clay pot before baking in a
furnace.

Glazing of earthen pots
Apply a mixture of Ghee, honey and Herb
powder (Kapittha, Bilwa and Niryas ) to clay
pots. This process imparts glazing to the china
clay pots.

Ashtabandha and Vajralepa
Special Mortars for Stone masonry

Adamantine Glues
A bonding agent was very essential for fixing idols,
in wall construction, when cement and other
modern materials were unknown. Even now these
glues are known as Astabandha, are prepared in
temple premises for fixing or re-fixing images of
gods. Four such glues are described below.

Table Ingredients
Sn Sanskrit English/ Latin
1 Tinduka Fruits of Diospyros paniculata
2 Kapittaka Feronia elephantum
3 Shalmali Flowers of silk cotton
4 Sallaki Seeds of Boswellia serrata
5 Dhanavana Barks of Orris root
6 Vacha Barks of Orris root
7 Shrivasaka A tree resin used as incense
8 Raktabola Myrrh
9 Guggulu Commiphora roxburghii
10 Bhallataka Semecarpus anacardium
11 Kunduruka Deodar tree resin
12 Atasi Linum usikatissimum
13 Bilvaphal Fruits of Aegle marmelos

Adamantine glues
A bonding agent mortar or glue was very essential
for fixing idols, in wall construction, when cement
and other modern materials were unknown.
Even now these glues, known as Astabandha, are
prepared in temple premises for fixing or re-fixing
images of gods.
Five prescriptions for such glues are described in
Shilpashastras

Ancient Indian texts such as Brhatsamhita
of Varaha-Mihira and Mayamatam of Sage
Maya (5-6th century AD) describes the
materials and methods of cementing
material in chapter Vajralepa.

The ingredients are
1. Unripe fruits of Tinduka and Kapittaka,
2. Flowers of silk cotton
3. Seeds of Sallaki
4. barks of Dhanavana and Vacha
All these ingredients are boiled in 256 parts of
water till the decoction reduces to One-eighth of
its original volume (i.e.32 Parts). The sediments
are mixed with substances, such as.
First Variety -Explained in Brihatsamhita

Second Variety –As per Mayamat
The method of preparation is same as
mentioned in previous slide.
Lac, Kunduru, lamp black, Guggulu, wood-
apple, Manjiostha resin, Bilva kernel, fruits
of Naga, Neem, Tinduka , Madana ,
Madhuka, myrrh and Ambalaka
Ingredients are

Third Variety As per Brihatsamhita
This variety of glue known as Vajratala or
Vajralepa
Ingredients are
• horns of cows, buffalo and goats,
• hairs of donkey,
• buffalo hide, cow hide,
• Neem fruits,wood-apples and myrrh.
This mixture too should be boiled in water
and reduced to one-eight. In this glue some
organic substances are also included

Forth Variety by Maya
A compound of eight parts lead, two of
Bell metal, and one of iron rust, and is
known as Vajrasanghata ( Adamantine
compound)
It may include other materials
mentioned in the previous versions as
well.,

Fifth Variety popular in Kerala
Preparing the mixture is a 41-day long
procedure and the eight ingredients are
1.Finely powdered conch
2. gall-nut
3. sealing wax
4. resin of pinus dammar’
5. Cotton
6. Fruits of gooseberry
7. Small sized gravels #
8. Medium sized gravels #Nagpur -15 March 2019

Mixture is hammered by four or five men
alternatively.
During this process one turns it with an iron
spatula.
 only wooden hammers made of tamarind wood
are used.
The weight of the hammer would be 8 to 10
kilos.
The lump is very soft and malleable.
It becomes hot during the hammering and
becomes hard like stone when the hammering is
stopped. Nagpur -15 March 2019

Formula Explained in Shilparatnakar
The ingredients are unripe fruits of Tinduka
(Diospyros malabarica) and Kapittaka
(Feronia elephantum), flowers of silk cotton
(Morus Acedosa) seeds of Sallaki (Boswellia
serrata), barks of Dhanavana and Vaca (Orris
root).

Herbal paints for stone softening
•Mix powder atis root, Hiracus and red
ochre in milk. Apply this paint to the stone
and keep it overnight.
•Grind Jatamasi,Koshta, Gayaratri Hirkus
and chor in milk add coconut water. Apply
the solution to the stone.
•Grind and mix Jatamasi,Rog and Aswamari
in rain water. Apply the solution to the
stone.

and red ochre
atis root Hiracus

Stone softening
The Incas employed certain methods to make
their stones fit perfectly. They knew a plant
whose juices rendered the surface of a block
so soft that the intricate fittings were
accomplished.
Stone with 14 angles
Stone wall at Cuzco (Peru)
57

CASE STUDIES
A. Gadhi soils –white soil
The main constituents
are local soil, fine
sand, cow dung, quick
lime, extracts of
Belphal , fibers of jute
and water for mixing.
The mixture is allowed
to mature for a
minimum period of 30
days and kneaded
everyday.
58

Foundry soils for metal casting
The Dhokra Technique of the tribal artists of Bastar
1.The first layer, the closest to the
wax sculpture,
is the river bed soil, water and
coal powder applied with brush.
2. A paste of red soil with rice husk
is applied to first dry solidified
layer This is applied with hands.
3.A final coating of rice husk, sand
and clay
is applied to the entire surface of
the piece..

Idols - Mud plaster
This constancy is determined by
rolling the clay mass on the
palms. When the lines of palm are
clearly impressed on the clay
mass the constancy is proper.
Liquidity index for this consistency (Palm line limit)
corresponds to 15 to 20 %

Lakshmana temple built by Queen Vasata, in 7th century
AD is world heritage structure
 Brick temple stands on a high massive platform
 This temple is one among the best examples of brick
temples of ancient India.
61
Lakshmana Temple, Sirpur -Chattisgarh

Case Studies-Brick Mortar
 A Light House structure on the coast near Mul
Dwarka (Kodinar)
The possible date of this structure is 12th and
the 15th centuries AD.
As per SEM analysis lime mortar was used .Nagpur -15 March 2019

Sources of Lime
1. Lime stone from Mines
2. Lime from Kankars in Clay stratum
3. Lime from Conches, shells and
Mother of pearls

Description of Lime kilns
• Lime stones were fired in closed Kilns.
• The temperature of the Kiln was
controlled;
• Smoke-pipes were kept in the Kiln
• Twigs of the trees like Pepal, Khadir Palash
etc.
• The lime stones were allowed to bake for
about ten to fifteen days.
Ref. -Shilparatna , Vastuvidya and Shilpadipak

Cooling and quenching of lime
• The fire should be extinguished after 15 days

Lime and Lime Mortars

1. Excavation of lime stone from underground
mines
2. Calcinatation (Burning lime stones)
3. Quenching (cooling) with water to obtain a
slaked lime
4. Sieving of the material to remove stones and
other impurities.
5. Lime mortar preparation by mixing with sand
6. Pulverization by Lime mill to obtain the mortar.
Ref. -Bhrugu samhita
Process of preparation of lime mortar

Five types of sands for lime mortars
1. Karal (size similar to hirda seeds)
2. Mugdi (size similar to green gram
seeds)
3. Gulmash (medium size sand)
4. Kalk (size similar to Bengal gram flour)
5. ChikkaN (Fine silt)
Ref.Mayamat chp.18

69
ककज रां िग्न्िना दनधां चूर्णजतां सुर्लेन च ।
िेधधतां नततऊना च ग्राह्यां वपष्टां सुसूक्ष्मकां ॥
साधे त्रत्रपादां द्विगुणां ककां र्ल्कशसकताांवितां ।
करालां िाथ मुनिी िा तेन मानेन योर्येद्॥
व्यासाधजधजत्रत्रिागैनतीव्रामध्येपरे परे ।
पुटिेदेन चक्रे ण मदजयेज्र्लाशमधिकां ॥ िृगुसांहिता अ.५

Briquettes of Surki (brick powder) and lime are
made and allowed to dry for 2 to 3 months.
These briquettes are fired and then finely
powdered to get cementing material called Shyay.
Ancient Cement
70

Grade Description
Bramhan -(First class) Sets quickly even in water
Kshyatriya -(Second
class)
Sets slowly in water
Vaishya- (Third class) sets very slowly in water
Shudra -(Forth class) which does not set
Gender
lime Feminine
lime powder Neutral
Age
childhood First 8 days of preparation
lime
Old kept unused or unsuitable
Classification of Lime
71

Lime Plasters
1. Wash and dry fine sand
2. Sieve slaked lime to separate coarse
materials.
3. Cut cotton fibers into very fine pieces.
4. Cook three food grains (Tri-java) – Rice,
Wheat and Barley (equal parts).
5. Cook powdered banana.
Mix all the above ingredients in the proportion
given below
Fine sand 1 part
Slaked lime 1 part
Cooked grains half part
Cooked Banana powder Half part
Cotton fibers Half part
72

Lime Mortar
Grind ripe bananas, fibers of cotton and pulp of cactus
and mix in slaked lime to make a good quality lime
mortar. Alternatively add decoction of barks of trees(
Pipal. Amla,Kadamb) and paste of black gram to the
slaked lime.
73

Sudha - Molding Lime for sculpturing
Lime prepared by burning couches (Shankha)
or oysters (Shipi) is called Sudha. Fine sand,
decoction of moog, jiggery water and Banana
powder is added to lime.
The recommended proportions are, Lime - 4
parts, Fine sand- 2 parts, Banana powder – 1
part and jiggery -1 part. All ingredients are
mixed by rolling again and again.
74

Briquettes of Surki (brick powder) and lime
are made and allowed to dry for 2 to 3 months.
These briquettes are fired and then finely
powdered to get cementing material called
Shyay.
Ancient Cement

Classification of Lime
Grade
First class Sets quickly even in water
Second class Sets slowly in water
Third class sets slowly in water
Forth class which does not set
Gender
lime Feminine
lime powder Neutral
Age
childhood First 8 days of preparation lime
Old kept unused or unsuitable

Lime Plasters
1. Wash and dry fine sand
2. Sieve slaked lime to separate coarse materials.
3. Cut cotton fibers into very fine pieces.
4. Cook three food grains (Trijava) – Rice, Wheat and Barley
(equal parts).
5. Cook powdered banana.
Mix all the above ingredients in the proportion given below
Fine sand 1 part
Slaked lime 1 part
Cooked grains half part
Cooked Banana powder Half part
Cotton fibers Half part

Lime Mortar
Grind ripe bananas, fibers of cotton and
pulp of cactus and mix in slaked lime to
make a good quality lime mortar.
Alternatively add decoction of barks of
trees (Pipal.Amla,Kadamb) and paste of
black gram to the slaked lime.

Sudha - Molding Lime for sculpturing
Lime prepared by burning couches (Shankha)
or oysters (Shipi) is called Sudha. Fine sand,
decoction of moog, jiggery water and Banana
powder is added to lime.
The recommended proportions are, Lime - 4
parts, Fine sand- 2 parts, Banana powder – 1
part and jiggery -1 part. All ingredients are
mixed by rolling again and again.

Red lime: More popularly known as “Kankar
lime” is made from special type of clay. It is
unfertile soil(Saline/User) and is rich in iron. It
is also called kankar.
Red Lime

Ingredient for Lime plasters
1 Ash 9 Cow dung 17 Mahuwa flowers
2 Bark of Neem 10 Egg white 18 Milk, curd or ghee
3 Bark of Pakar tree 11 Flowers Silk cotton tree 19 Mustard cake
4 Bee wax 12 Green gram (Moog) 20 oil
5 Belgiri (aegle'pulp) 13 Guggul 21 Powder of Cattle horn
6 Black gram(Udad ) 14 Hemp fiber 22 Resin of Sal tree
7 Brick powder 15 Jaggery 23 Rice husk
8 Clay 16 Juice of Cactus 24 Saaf flower oil
Natural Polymers for Lime Mortar

Lime flooring.
The floors of were made of a
material that is unique blend
of burnt coconut shells, quick
lime, palm toddy, the whites
of eggs and extracts of
certain barks of trees and
nuts.
Padmanabhapurum palace (1601 A.D) in Kerala

Cave Paintings
Caves Constituents of plaster
Ajanta caves Clay, cow dung, stone powder,
rise husk and lime.
Sirgirea caves Tempered clay, kaolin, rice
husk, Coconut shell fibers and
lime.
Bagh caves Red clay, green gram, lime and
jute.
Ref. Mansoullas which recommends use of powder
of conch "shankh", katha, pulses, molasses, and
boiled bananas.

Sunla
Curd, milk, black gram paste, gud,
ghee, ripe bananas, coconut and
mango pulp are added to slake lime.
Plaster made of these materials is non-
shrinking and waterproof.

Waterproof lime mortar
Mix Ghee, coconut water, black gram
paste , extract of barks(Pipal), milk,
curd, decoction of Trifala, and Pichhit,
in proportion of 3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10 and
11 parts to 100 parts of slaked lime.

Fig.4b- Waterproof lime mortar

Leveling coat of lime plaster
Mix 3 parts of slaked lime and 1 part of
powder of dry unripe banana. Add water
to make butter like mixture. Such
leveling coat gives marble finish to the
wall surface

This presentation is only a tip of huge iceberg i.e.
Ancient Indian Shilpashastra.
The main purpose is to acquaint the engineers and
students about the glorious heritage of ancient
India.
Many of the ancient techniques may have become
irrelevant with the advent of modern materials and
construction equipments. But one must admire the
wisdom of ancient engineers of India.

The ancient Indian texts are not
religious books compiled for people of a
particular religion or caste. These are
encyclopedias of all subjects.
If this presentation could inspire few
research workers to look into other
hidden aspects related to their
profession, the purpose of this
presentation will be more than fulfilled

1. Aparajitprichha- (12th to 13th Century A.D)
2. Manasollas –(1113 AD)
3. Matsyapooran
4. Mayamat
5. Pade S.D. (1973), “Vanoushadhi Gunadarsh “
6. Rig Veda Sakaladhikar, - by Sage Agasta
7. Samarangana Sutradhara
8. Shilpratna-(16th Century, A.D.),
9. Tantrasamuchhyaya-(1428 A.D.)
10. Varahsamhita- Brihatsamhita
11. Varahsamhita- Brihatsamhita
12. Vastu Vidya Savyakhya
13. Vishnu-dharmottara Pooran
14. Yajurved Samhita (B.C.2500)
References

Modern References
1.Vaze,K.V. (1924),“ Prachin Hindi
Shilpasar” (Essence of ancient Indian
Engineering Philosophy) ,a Marathi Book,
Pub. ,Varada Publications Pune.
2.Nene,A.S. (2009),” Building materials
and Construction techniques of ancient
India”, e-Book, Pub. Bookganga.com.

This presentation is based on published and
unpublished works of Late K.V. Vaze and G.G.
Joshi
Acknowledgement

Review the Past with modern perspective -
Kautilya

Adhesives and mortars in ancient india

Adhesives and mortars in ancient india

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