Deals with Vastu Shastra of Ancient India

1. Edited and Compiled by
Dr. Ashok S. Nene
Ishaan Publications Nagpur
January 2022

2. i
PROLOGUE
The vast ancient Indian literature includes texts also
on Indian Architecture (Referred as Hindu Vast Shastra
hereafter). More than thousand texts (Shilpa and Vastu
Samhitas) can be mentioned on this subject. Out of
these approximately five hundred texts are preserved,
in the form of manuscript on palm leaves, tree barks
etc, in some of the libraries of Oriental research
institutes and museums. The vast technical literature
still exists as it was concealed in religious and
mythological scriptures.
Modern architects unfortunately, have not paid
proper attention to this ancient literature mainly due to
lack of knowledge of the language i.e. Sanskrit or due
to improper translation and interpretation of this
information by non-technical academicians. Though
there are hundreds of ancient references on engineering
only few easily available are quoted in this book.
There are different styles of Architecture followed
all over the world. But the scope of the present book is
restricted to Hindu Vast shastra only. The word Hindu
does not relate to the religion of majority people of
India. The word Hindu means the people settled on the
banks of Sindhu River. None of the thousands of ancient

3. ii
Indian manuscripts contain word “Hindu“. The land
between Himalayas to Kanya Kumari, surrounded by
Arabian sea on west and Bay of Bengal on east, was
called “Bharat. The Indian constitution also mentions
‘India that is Bharat’.
As a rough estimate there are more than 500 books
on Vastu shastra which include some 250 original
Sanskrit books and equal number of translations into
English and regional languages. If a reader reads even
15 books, he would conclude that the main topics of all
these books are more or less the same with minor
changes according to regions. Further it can be seen
that the information contained in these books can be
grouped under three headings as;
A-Vastu Rachana -Planning and Design: This part based
on scientific principles and environmental conditions
prevailing in India.
B -Vastu Dravya (Construction Materials): The secret of
Indian heritage structures mainly depends on proper
selection of building materials. This part is based on
knowledge of material science and is highly scientific.
C- Vastu Jyotishya (Predictive astrology): which
recommends everything either good or bad for the
owner of habitat. This part is totally unscientific and

4. iii
irrelevant in the present time. During the period
between 16th
to 19th
century, this third part dominated
and ultimately defamed the Hindu Vastu Shastra.
The main purpose of compiling this book is to highlight
the scientific part and expose the unscientific and
irrelevant part of Hindu Vastu Shastra. So, the students
of Architecture would then learn the true Indian
architecture rather than blindly following western
architecture.
Vedic hymn - I construct here a permanent house,
Bless me with Ghee (clarified butter). May this house
be adorned with children, cows, horses and wealth, and
bless me with all fortune.
इहैव ध्रुवाां निनििौनिशालाां । क्षेिेनिष्ठिु घृििुक्षिाणा॥
अश्वाविी गोििी सुिृिाविी। उच्छयस्व िहिेसौभगाय ॥ऋग्वेद
Periods of Indian Architecture: Archaeological
discoveries of past five decades have led new theories
and reassessment regarding ancient period One point
of agreement is that Vedic age ended before 1000 BC.
The history of architecture in India is not a continuous
story. In India as in other countries, culture and
architecture are connected with political power, religion

5. iv
was the main inspiration behind the architecture
achievements, and was dominating the political order.
Accordingly, three distinct styles of building were built
in three successive ages.
1. Indo-Aryan: The beginning of the first cycle
cannot be precisely mentioned. It spanned
between 5000 BC to the end of the 12th century
AD.
2. Indo-Islamic: Second cycle started from the
beginning of the 13th century and lasted until the
middle of the 18th century.
3. Indo-British Period: The third cycle was the
period of British rule from 1858 to1947.
All the surviving examples of ancient Indian
architecture are religious monuments. No residential
buildings or any other form of secular architecture have
survived except in the south India, But Sanskrit
literature contains numerous references to splendid
mansions and palaces
The periods of Indian architecture are given below in
the chronological order:
Table - The periods of Indian art
SN Type Period
Indo-Aryan period - 5000 BC to 12th century AD.

6. v
1 Indus valley culture 5000-1500 B.C
2 Pre-Mauryan 650-325 B.C
3 Mauryan 325-185 B.C
4 Sunga 185-72 B.C
5 Satvahan 200 B.C-200
A.D
6 Kushan -Gandhar 1st A.D-176
A.D
7 Gupta 320-600 A.D
8 Chalukyan 550-973 A.D
9 Pallav 600-750 A.D
10 The Pala 700-1200 A.D
11 The Orissa Temples 700-1200 A.D
12 Khajuraho Temples 950-1050 A.D
13 Hoysala 1111-1318 A.D
Indo-Islamic period -13th century to 18th century
14 Other Medieval Monuments 1000-1600 A.D
15 Indo-Islamic Monuments 1200-1700 A.D
Indo-British Period -1858 to1947
16 Portuguese, French and British 1526-1857 A.D
17 British Monuments 1857 -1947
A.D

7. vi
18 Post-Independence After 1947 A.D
The scope of this book is restricted to Hindu Vastu
Shastra only, which rose to its Zenith during Indo-
Aryan period viz. 5000 BC to 12th century AD.
History of revival of Hindu Vastu Shastra: At the
beginning of 19th century Madras manuscript library
was established. Shri Ramaraja, who was civil judge,
had knowledge of many languages including Sanskrit.
Shri Ramaraja was requested to compile information
related to Vastu shastra. With great efforts he in 1833
could write a thesis entitled as “Essay on architecture
of the Hindus“. The thesis was submitted to Royal
Asiatic Society of London.
In 1876 Rev. J.E. Korunas translated a Sanskrit text
“Mayamat-Shilpa shastra“. Subsequently A.V.Tyagraj
Ayyar compiled a 1000 pages book entitled “Indian
architecture of the Shilpa shastras of India“ which was
based on based on ancient text “Manasar“.
In 1927 Dr Prasanna Kumar Acharya compiled 3000
pages encyclopaedia named as ‘Manasara -an
encyclopaedia of Hindu architecture. This exhaustive

8. vii
book contains names of 200 major texts and 125 divine
engineers.
Many ancient texts were edited and published and new
generation of research workers started working on this
subject.
Dr. Dixitar, Raghavan, Dr. Madayya, Rao Sahib K.V.
Vaze and Shri G.G. Joshi are few prominent names who
devoted full life to interpret the ancient wisdom.
The contents of this book are mainly based on published
research work of Late K.V. Vaze and Shri G.G. Joshi.
Ashok Sadashiv Nene
Nagpur

9. 1
CONTENTS
Hindu Vastu Shastra -Ancient Indian Architecture
SN Topic Page
0a Contents 01
0c Prologue
PART A – VASTU RACHANA- (Architectural Planning)
A1 Extent of Shilpa Shastra 02
A2 Architectural planning 23
A3 ORIENTATION – Dik-Saadhaan 36
A4 Measurement Systems and Tools 40
A5 Significant features of Hindu Vastu
Shastra
53
PART B – VASTU DRAVYA - (Construction Materials)
B1 Ancient Building Science 79
B2 Mud as construction materials 82
B3 Bricks and roofing tiles 87
B4 Lime and Lime Mortars 113
B5 Building Stones 132
B6 Timber for Construction material 149
B7 Adamantine Glues 180
B8 Colors and Paints 188
B9 Gems and Precious Stones 197
PART C- VASTU JYOTISHYA - (Predictive Astrology)
C1 Auspicious directions 198

10. 2
C2 Relevance of Vastu Shastra in Modern
Times
204
C3 Advance Vaastu 217
C4 Explanation of Caste system in Vaastu
shastra
224
Bibliography 227
D1 Reasons for loss of ancient technical
literature
239
D2 The Six Commandments to an Architect 243
D3 Divine Engineers 245
D4 Tools 253
D5 List of Indian Trees mentioned in ancient
texts
262
D6 About the Editor 272

11. 3
Chapter 1
A1 -Extent of Shilpa-shastra
True meaning of ‘Shilpa-shastra’ -The true meaning
of the word ‘Shilpa-shastra’ is Engineering philosophy
of ancient India and not ‘Science and Technology of
ancient India’. Rules and principles of Science change
from time to time. But philosophy remains unchanged.
Terminology -To properly understand the subject of
Vastu shastra, one has to understand certain
terminology, which is describe below.
Shilpa - The Sanskrit word has a very wide meaning,
other than a sculpture or an idol. The word Shilpa is
derived from words Sheel samadhou which mean
anything that pleases human mind. Sage Bhrugu has
given a definition of Shilpa (A-01) Shilpa includes many
articles (things), machines, innovations, metals, and
artificial means.
नानविधानाां िस्तूना यांत्राणाां कल्पसांपदाम ् ।
धातूनाां साधनानाां च िास्तूनाां शिल्पसांज्ञितम ् ॥ भृगुसांहिता
अ. १

12. 4
A1.1- Definition of Shilpa
Shilpashastra - means a science which deals with
creation of a Shilpa.
Shilpasamhita means compilation of rules and
procedures related to a particular Shilpa. The
exact period in which Shilpa-Samhitas i.e.
compilations were made is not known.
Shilpdyna- is one who is a master of
Shilpashastra or an engineer or architect of
modern term.
Vidya- Vidya means a particular technique. One
must have both theoretical and practical
knowledge of that subject. There are 32 Vidyas
related to Shilpashastra.
विद्यानाां यथास्िां आचायं प्रमाण्यां विनयो शनयमश्च ॥ भृगुसांहिता अ
A1.2- Four types of Vidyas
Kala - Kala means an art which can be acquired
by practice and observation. Even a handicapped
person can be expert in a particular art without
any theoretical knowledge. There are 64
arts(Kala) related to Shilpashastra.
यद्यत्सस्याव्दाशचक
ां सम्यक्कमम विद्येशत सांज्ञितम ् ।

13. 5
िक्तो मूकोऽवप यत्सकतुं कलासांिां तत्तत्सस्मृतम ्॥
विद्या ह्यनांताश्च कला: सांख्यातुां नैि िक्यते ।
विद्या मुख्यास्तु व्दावत्रांिच्चतु:ज्ञटि: कला: स्मृता: ॥
भृगुसांहिता अ. १
A1.3- Definition of Kala
Extent of Shilpa-shastra- Sage Bhrugu divided the
entire knowledge related to Shilpa-shastra into three
Volumes. He further included three Shilpa-shastras to
each of these volumes. The entire knowledge is further
divided into 32 Vidyas and 64 Kalas. The organization
of Shilpa-shastra is shown in a table A1.1. Yantra
Shashtra (Machines) is common to all volumes and it is
considered as 10th Shastra.
Table A1.1 - Extent of Shilpa-shastra
Volume
(Khanda)
Engineering Science (Shastra)
Exploration 1 Biological Sciences (Krishi)
2 Water Resources (Jala)
3 Mining & Metallurgy (Khani)

14. 6
Transportation 4 Surface Transport (Ratha)
5 Water Transport (Nauka)
6 Air/ Space
Transport(Vyomayan)
Habitation 7 Dwellings (Veshma)
Defense System 8 Forts (Praakar)
Town planning 9 (Nagar rachana)
Machines 10 (Yantra)
Vidyas related to Vastu-shastra
Vidyas (Techniques) under Veshma shastra are,
Table A1.2 - Vidyas (Techniques)
SN Sanskrit Name Meaning
20 Waso Vidya Tents
21 Kutti Vidya Mud houses or Huts
22 Mandir Vidya Houses
23 Prasad Vidya Palaces

15. 7
Eleven Kalas (Skills) out of 64
Table A1.3 - Kalas (Skills)
SN Sanskrit Name Meaning
47 Charmapatbandhan Erecting of Leather tent
48 Mrudksadhan Soil preparation
49 TruNadyachhan Roofing with grass
50 ChurNopalep White Washing
51 VarN karma Preparations of paint
52 Daru Karma Carpentry
53 Mrudkarma Soil Conditioning
54 Chitradyalekhan Drawing and Painting
55 PratimakaraN Sculpture
56 Talakriya Foundations
57 Shikharkarm Construction of dome
Inter-related subjects -Hindu Vastu Shastra was an
integrated science. This science included study of
following inter-related subjects;
Astrology (Jyotushya) Astronomy (Graha Ganit)
Botany (Vrukshya vidya) Drawing & Painting (Chitra
Vidya)
Geometry (Sutragranth) Horticulture (Upawan
vidya)

16. 8
Iconography
(Murtishastra)
Machines (Yantra shastra)
Material science (Dravya) Mathematics (Ganit)
Nagar Rachana (Town
planning)
Prakarshastra (Forts &
Castles)
Samhita grantha
(Engineering texts)
Temple arts
(Devalayavidya)
WASOVIDYA – TENTS
Fig. A1.1 – Leather Tent
Animals' skin was called Krutti. Such skins were first
used for erecting tents and then as clothing. Ref.
Bhrugusamhita, Chapter.14.
As per Shilpadipak the pegs should be of hard wood. It
should be straight smooth and sharp at one end and of

17. 9
uniform size. The peg should be driven into ground
firmly.
Shilpadipak specifies that rope to be used for tent
erection. Rope should be such that;
 Does not elongate on stretching or shrink or
releasing.
 It should be new, smooth as hairs.
 It should be made of Kush or Munja Grasses, jute or
shoots of
bamboo.
 It should be thick as finger and with two plies. Ref.
Shilpadipak.
The pegs of a tent are driven in the direction of south-
east, south-west, north-west, and north-east. This is
done to prevent the wind from entering into tent. Ref.
Shilpadipak.
Shilpa Shastra classify soils into four groups. For details
on mud plater, doors, wood for low cost houses and
types of roofs etc. For details ref Part B below.

18. 10
MANDIR VIDYA – HOUSES
Depth of foundation: The depth of foundation should be
60 cm
120 cm Ref.Mayamat Chapter.27.
The height of plinth should be equal to knee height (60
cm) to chest height (90 cm) Ref. Mayamat Chapter.27.
Steps should be provided for houses,schools and
palaces. Ref. Shilpadipak.
Sizes of houses: The house should not be less than 16
hasta
(3 m) in width. The size should be between 8 Danda to
32 Danda (8-
32 m) at interval of 2 hasta. Ref. Mayamat Chapter.27.

19. 11
Odd number of doors: The Doors, pillars or trusses etc
should
be odd in number (1, 3, 5, 7 etc).
Selection of trees for construction: Mayamat specifies
wood of
certain trees, suitable for construction. Ref. Mayamat
Chapter.27. Details
of the trees are shown in a table 22.1.
Table A1.4 - Wood for Construction
Sanskrit Names Botanical Names
Khadir Nimb
Madhuk Pishit
Sala Rajadan
Tinduk Vanhi
Refer Table for English and Botanical names
-Pillars and walls: The house normally should have one
to five
storey. Wall should rest on wall and pillar on pillar but
wall should not
rest on pillar. Ref. Mayamat Chapter.21.

20. 12
There should be separate staircases for different
floors. The three
basic types of staircase are,
1. Within a wall
2. Adjacent to a wall
3. Without side walls
The four styles of staircase are
1. Trikhand - Dog legged
2. Shankhamandal- Spriral
3. Vallimandal - Helical
4. Gomutrasum - Straight Ref. Mayamat Chapter.18.
Covering of roof: Roofing tiles, metal pieces are used to
cover
the portion above the truss. The roof should be non-
leaking. Roof form
an important part of house. Ref. Mayamat , Chapter.18.
Plasters and paintings: As per Mayamat external and
internal
plaster is necessary. Inner walls should be decorated
with the pictures
of gods or goddess or which pleases mind and not or
war, death etc.
Erotic pictures must not painted on walls. Ref. Mayamat

21. 13
Chapter.18.
There should be uniformity of materials
to be used in building. Planning is necessary if different
materials are
to be used in different parts. Ref. Shilpadipak.
PRASADVIDYA -PALACES
-Depth of foundation: There should not be any defect in
the foundation level of palace. The foundation should
be laid on rock, hard soil or at level of water table. Ref.
Ref. Shilpadipak.
Vastupuja: Vastu idol should be buried in lined pit near
the column's base. Eight precious stones, eight types
of grain seeds, eightmedicinal herb, cloth and flowers,
coins should also be buried in this
pit.
Purpose of plinth: Plinth should be constructed below
ground floor. Plinth imparts height, safety and beauty
to the structure. The height of plinth is decided on the
type, height and construction methodof the structure.

22. 14
Plinth construction: Plinth should provide access to all
parts of house and may be cut for main entrance. Ref.
Mayamat Chapter.14.
Description of Pillars: The description of pillars is given
below.
Height size, decorations and type of columns is also
described. Threemain parts of columns are,
 Kumbhi
 Khamb
 Mand
Various shapes are given to these three parts. Ref.
Mayamat Chapter.15.
Mayamat specifies wood of certain trees suitable for
making wooden
pillars (as the wood is strong in compression). Ref.
Mayamat Chapter.14
Table -Trees suitable for
making wooden pillars
Ajkarni Pishit
Arjun Punnag

23. 15
Chandan Rajadan
Dhanwan Sala
Khadir Shami
Kshirni Shishamp
Madhuk Simha
Padma Stabak
Pindi Tilak
Refer Table for English and
Botanical names
Selection of trees for wood: Mayamat specifies wood of
certain
trees suitable for making wooden beams (as the wood
is strong in
bending). Ref. Mayamat Chapter.12. Ref. Mayamat
Chapter.12.
Table A1.6 - Trees suitable for
making wooden beams
Aasan Likunch
Bhoum Nimb
Eka Panus

24. 16
Gawakshi Saptaparna
Kak Shirish
Katphal Timis
Refer Table for English and Botanical
names
Female trees for beams: Wood, stones and bricks are
used to
construct pillars, beams and roofs. Trees, whose wood
is durable, are
described above. Ref. Mayamat Chapter.15.
Building materials: As per Bhrugusamhita, bricks and
stones,
which are suitable for columns, are described below.
Ref.
Bhrugusamhita- Chapter.15.
Selection of stones & bricks: Mayamat describes
properties of
stones or bricks to be used for masonry. Ref. Mayamat
Chapter.12.
 Stones should be of same color, smooth, embedded in
ground
 Bricks - Properly fired, sound and free from voids.

25. 17
Roofs: Roof column should rest on beam or truss. The
space
between beams should be covered with wooden
planks. The plank
thickness should be one eighth the width. Roof should
be constructed
with rafters and tiles.
Types of partition walls: Partition walls are skillfully
made of
wood, tone or bricks. The tree types of partition walls
are,
 Jalak- Grilled partition
 Falak - Wooden planks
 Aistak- Brick wall
23.12 - Masonry Bonds: By proper interlocking of
bricks layering of
bricks should be done. Depending upon the position of
joints in brick
layers, five types of bonds are created. These are,
1. Mallalila
2. Bramaraj
3. Venuparva
4. Pugaparwa
5. Deosandhi

26. 18
6. Dandka.
Joints of Column: Five types of joints for columns are
specified. These are,
1. Meshyuddha- fight of lambs
2. Trikhand - three legged
3. Soubhadra- four legged
4. Ardhapani-Hand in hand
5. Mahavrutta- Thumb.
Joints of beams: Western structures do not provide
joints in
columns but Indian work allow joint at one third height
from bottom.
Five types of joints for beams are specified. These are,
1. Shatshikha
2. Zashdant
3. Sukarghrana
4. Sakarnakil
5. Vajjrabh
Types of Roofs: Different types of roofs are specified in
Mayamat. The roofs may be sloping in 2, 4,6,8,12,16
ways. The roofsmay be lotus, Gooseberry, garland or
sphere shaped. Ref. MayamatChapter.18.

27. 19
Preparation of lime mortar: Lime mortar is prepared by
mixing
lime and sand of three sizes,
1. Karal,2. Muggdi and 3. Gulmash
The first layer of lime mortar plaster should be 19 mm
thick. Second and third layer should be 10 and 5 mm
thick respectively. The mortar
should be cured for a period of six to twelve months.
Ref. Mayamat Chapter.18.
Necessity of a Vastu
Food, clothes and shelter are the three basic
requirements of every human being. Following Vedic
hymn explains about the necessity of a Vastu.
The hymn says “I construct this house as center of the
earth, let this house be flooded with wealth. Make this
house my permanent abode full of household things.
Cows. Horses etc.“
इमामुच््याशम भुिनस्य नाशभां िसोधोराां अतरँईं िस्तुनाां
इिैि ध्रुिां शनशमतौशन िाला क्षेमे शतट्तुघृतमुक्षमा
अश्वशनती गोमती सुनृतावित्सयुच्छधस्ि प्रिते सौभगा
Vedic Hymn

28. 20
Another hymn says “may this house protect us from
fire, rains, bright sun rays, heavy winds, thieves and
wild animals“.
घाराशन:पातात्ससशललप्रकोपाइ दांष्ट्राशतपातात्सपिांप्र कोपाद्
अग्नेश्चदािान्मुविताच्च चोराद्रक्षाज्ञत्सिदां स अशििां च मे ऽस्तु॥
Vedic Hymn
Once the object or essential requirements are clear in
mind the person (owner) starts the planning of a
habitat.
As per Indian sages, like our five sense of perception,
knowledge of five components of most of the things is
essential. The five building construction materials are 1
Soil/ mud,2 Bricks, 3 stonesm,4, wood and 5 metals.
मृहदिकासुधािैलाफलकाहदक शभांवत्तक
ां ।
िेमरत्नाहदसहितां गृिां कायं यथाबल ॥
तृणैस्तु मृण्मयां छाद्यां इिकाशभमृमण्मयां ।
धातुशभधीतुयुक्त
ां च शिखरैर्रलाम मांहितां ॥
शिल्पसांहिता
A1.5- construction materials
गृिस्थस्य गेिां विना सिमकायं न शसध्दत्सयतो गेहिनाां चैि गेिम ्।
अिश्यां सुरम्यां पवित्रेऽशतभूमौ, विशनमामय कायाम हिया सिमदैि॥४॥
Necessity of a Vastu

29. 21
A man cannot perform his duties without a house
hence he should construct a house at pious and
beautiful site. Ref Vastu Manikya Ratnakar
याां भूशमां दिमनेनैि मनसश्र्चक्षुिोस्तथा ।
सांतोिो जायते तत्र िासां क
ु यामद् गृिी सदा ॥६४॥ िास्तुमाज्ञणक्य
रत्नाकर
suitable site for construction
Any site which pleases the mind, it is the suitable site
for construction of a house. Ref Vastu Manikya Ratnakar
Combining two houses
न गृिव्दयसांयोगां क
ु युम: खलु मनीविण:।
आदौ गृिाणाां सांयोगां भिेच्छ
ु भफलप्रदम ॥१०७॥
िास्तुमाज्ञणक्य रत्नाकर
Combining two houses
Wise persons should not combine two
houses(apartments),three or more houses may
however combined. Ref Vastu Manikya Ratnakar
Waste water drains
गृिाव्दारर शन:सारणथम प्रक
ु यामत ् वबलां पूिमकाष्ठाहदक
े तत्सफलच्च॥१६५॥
िास्तुमाज्ञणक्य रत्नाकर
Waste water drains

30. 22
The main Waste water drains of a house should be in
east direction. Ref Vastu Manikya Ratnakar
******

31. 23
A2 -Architectural planning
Introduction: Hindu Vastu shastra outlines basic
principles and states Vastu must be a) durable b) useful
and c) aesthetically beautiful.
िाश्र्ितां सुांदरां िास्तु उपयुक्त च तदभिेत ॥
It also lays down that, Vastu is affected by rain water,
disturbances in the earth such as earthquakes, the wind
and environmental effects. The prayer recited at the
time of inauguration of Vastu is as below;
“Let God of rain, earth, wind & Sun, God of
environment protect the structure.“
िां नो िरुण: िां नो धाररणी:
िां नो मारुत: िां नो अयममा: ॥
An Indian King gave challenge to architects to build a
temple which can stand for thousand years. One
architect built such a temple. The inscription on stone
wall states
“I have built a temple to last thousand years life, where
there are no bricks no lime, no timber and no steel.

32. 24
(Stones with spigot socket vertical joints, copper plates-
horizontal joints, door frames of stones, doors of
copper/silver used.)“
अशनविक
ां असुधां अलौिक
ां अदारुिनां चकारस
As per Hindu Vastu Shastra a house has five basic
components (Panchagas).
1. Foundation (Janma)
2. Plinth (Adhisthan)
3. Storeys (Bhoomi)
4. Columns (Paad) and
5. Roof (Achchaadan)
Ashwalayan Gruhya Sutra contains following hymns on
these components.
यत्र सिमत्र आपोमध्यां समेत्सथ प्रदज्ञक्षणां ियनीयां परीत्सय
प्राय: स्िांदेरत अप्रित्सय: तत्ससिं समृध्दां ।२-७-६
समिस्तिेभक्तिरणां कारयेद्।िन्िांतां भिाशत।२-८- ८
दज्ञक्षणी प्रिणे सभाां मापसेत्ससा धूता भिाशत।२-८- ९
तत्ससिस्तसीतां कृ त्सिा यथाहदक् समचभुरस्तां मापयेद्। यतचतुरस्त्रां
िा। २-८- १०

33. 25
आश्वलायन गृह्यसूत्रात २-८-
The shape of a house should be such that the rain
water on the roofs flows toward the central open
portion from which it is drained out of the house
The foundation
There should be no defect in the foundation level of
palace. The foundation should be laid on rock, hard soil
or at level of water table.
जलाांशतक
े ज्ञस्थतां िल्य प्रासादे दोिदां िदेत ्।
शभत्तेमूमलां स्थापनीय पािाणे िा सुज्ञस्थरायाां धररत्र्याम ्॥ शिल्पदीपक
• The depth of foundation should be 60 cm 120
cm.
• The height of plinth should be equal to knee
height (60 cm) to chest height (90 cm)
• Steps should be provided for houses, schools
and palaces.
जानुमात्रां खनेभ्दाशम: पुरुिाधमप्रमाणत:।
अध:पुरुिमात्रात्तु न िल्यां दोिदां गृिे॥

34. 26
सिेिामवप िणामनाां पादौच्चाधं मसूरकम ् ।
क
े शचत्सस्िभतुमिक्षोरुनाम्युत्ससेघां िांदशत च ॥ मयमत अ २७
पदिीनां न कतमव्यां प्रासादमठमांहदरम ्। शिल्पदीपक
Plinth - Plinth of a house serves three purposes,
For protection from rain water, creeping animals
such as snakes etc.
To enhance the beauty of the house.
To provide more height.
Plinth should provide access to all parts of house and
may be cut for main entrance.
अशधष्ठनस्य चाधस्तादुपपीठां प्रयोजयेत ।
रक्षार्थमुमन्नताथे च िोभाथे तत्सप्रिक्ष्यते ॥मयमत अ १३
Open spaces- Considering the climatic conditions in
India, an open to sky courtyard (Bramhasthan) is
provided in the house. Such houses remain warm in
winter and cool in summer. Number of such open
spaces was increased as per requirements.
Palaces used to have fourteen such open spaces.

35. 27
A house having width of 24 ‘hasta’ (12 m) should
have an open space of width of 14 ‘hasta’ (7 m.)
स्यादूभूशमरेका िसुिस्त गेिे दिाशम िृध्दयाच तत: परांभिेत ्॥
भृगुसांहिता
description of open spaces
Open spaces – If the length of house is 12 meter, then
the length of open space should be 4 meter.
चतुविमिा मिािाला मध्यभागे चतुदमि ॥
ह्याांतरे वत्रभागां स्याद् द्वौ द्वौ िामे च दज्ञक्षणे॥शिल्पदीपक
Provision for sun rays and wind breeze – Rig Veda and
Atharva Veda contains following hymns.
1-Don’t prevent morning sun rays from entering into
the house.
2- May Sun God prevent edging of my body.
3-O wind share nectar from your store to prolong my
life.

36. 28
4- O Fire God protect me from all directions, May your
morning rays cut the death ropes.
It Can be seen that our ancestors were aware of the
importance of Sun rays and wind. The open space
provide both these amenities. The size of the open
space was proportional to the height (storeys) of the
house.
१- माज्ञच्छत्सथा अस्माल्लोकादग्रे: सूयमस्य सांदृि: ।अथिम िेद ८-२-४
२- सूयमस्त्सिाशधपशत मृममृमत्सयोरुदायच्छतु राज्ञश्मशभ: ।अथिमिेद ५-३०
३- यददो िार ते गृिे अमृतस्य विशधिीत: मेदेहि जीिसे ॥१ऋग्िेद
१०-१८६
४- अज्ञग्नमामअज्ञग्नमामगोप्ता पररपातु विश्वत: । उद्यनसूयोनुदांता
मृत्सयुपािान ्॥
व्युच्छांतीरुिस: पिमताध्रुिा:।सिस्त्रां प्रामामस्याप्रामामस्यायलांताां ॥
अथिमिेद १७-१-३०
Walls and plaster: As per Mayamatam external and
internal plaster is necessary. Inner walls should be
decorated with the pictures of gods or goddess or
which pleases mind and not or war, death etc. Erotic
pictures must not be painted on walls.

37. 29
There should be uniformity of materials to be used in
building. Planning is necessary if different materials are
to be used in different parts.
देिानाां च ज्ञव्दजानाां चािासे योग्यां सनातनम ्।
बहिरांतश्र्च सिेिाां छत्रां युांज्ञजत बुज्ञध्दमान ्॥
सुमांगलकथोपेतां श्रध्दाांनृत्तहियाांवितम ्।
सांग्रामां मरणां दु:ख तापसनग्नलीलम ्॥ मयमत अ १८
Types of partition walls - Partition walls are skillfully
made of wood, tone or bricks. The tree types of partition
walls are, Jalak- Grilled partition, Falak - Wooden
planks and Aistak- Brick wall.
दृमोपलेिकाद्रव्येयुमक्तया युांज्ञजत शभवत्तका: ।
जालक
ां फालक
ां क
ु ड्यमैिक
ां वत्रधा मतम ् ॥ मयमत अ

38. 30
Fig.A6.1- partition walls
Roofing of houses: Roofs of mud house can be of
grass. But brick houses can be provided with a roof of
metal sheets and decorated with precious stones. .
तृणैस्तु मृण्मयां छाद्यां इिकाशभरमृण्मयां।
धातुशभधामतुयुक्त
ां च शिखरैरमरत्न मांहदतां ॥ भृगुसांहिता
As per Mayamatam, Roof should be constructed with
rafters and tiles.
hatched roof should be provided for mud house and tiles
should be used for roofs of houses made of stone or
bricks.
िाजनोध्िे तुलोध्िे गोपानां योजयेद् बुध:।
पादानामांतर छद्यां फलक
ै : सारदारुजै:॥
अिाांश्बिलां छन्नफलका छद्यमूध्िमत: ।

39. 31
गोपानस्योपररसटात्तु छद्ययेल्लोिलोष्ठक
ै ॥ मयमत अ. १६
Types of Roofs - Different types of roofs are
specified in Mayamat. The roofs may be sloping in 2,
4,6,8,12,16 ways. The roofs may be lotus,
Gooseberry, garland or sphere shaped.
चतुरस्त्रां च िृतां च ििस्त्रािास्त्रमेिा च ।
व्दादिास्त्रां ज्ञव्दरिास्त्रां पद्मक
ु ड्मलसज्ञन्नभम॥
तथामलकपक्कभां मालाकारां च गोलकम ् । मयमत अ.१८
5-Staircase- A staircase can be within a wall or,
Adjacent to a wall or, without side walls. The style of
the staircase can be
Dog legged (Trikhand) or
Spiral- (Shankhamandal) or
Helical-(Vallimandal) or
Straight-(Gomutrasum)

40. 32
Fig. - style of the staircase
The Doors, pillars or trusses etc should be odd in
number (1, 3, 5, 7 etc).
Columns
Joints of Column
Five types of joints for beams are specified.
1. Shatshikha, Zashdant, Sukarghrana,
Sakarnakil, Vajjrabh
िटशिका झपदांतां सूकरघ्राणमेि च।
सांकीणमकीलां िज्राभांपचैि िशयतेटिवप ॥
Position of rooms- Hindu architecture specifies that,

41. 33
Kitchen should be located on west side of the
house.
Drawing room(Seating room) should be on
south side.
Store room should be on the northern side. The
study room should be on east side. Masters bed
room may be any where, on higher level, so that
owner can watch all activities
गेिाधीि यदृच्छया च ियांसिासु भूमािु च । राजिल्लभ
Place of worship should be on North-east side at
highest level
उक्तानुक्त
े मांहदरादौ शनिेिे त्सिष्ट्रा काये चािया स्िाशमतश्व ॥
Windows and Ventilators – In India summer winds
blow from west and wind flows from North. Hence
Windows and Ventilators should be along west and
North directions respectively.
गिाक्षां दज्ञक्षणे भागे पज्ञश्चमे पिमजमयेद्। शिल्पदीपक
िातायनां दज्ञक्षज्ञण्दज्ञग्िभागे हक
ां िा सदा चास्तभये विधेयां ।
शिल्पसांहिता

42. 34
Local geographical factors should be taken into account
while planning.
If the rainfall or snowfall in the region is
scanty then the roofs should be flat Viz.
Rajastan.
If the rainfall in the region is heavy then
the roofs should be steep viz. Himachal
Pradesh .
The height of house should be more than
normal if the climate is hot. But in a region
where winds blow at high speeds, height
of house should be less than normal viz.
Kashmir.
The plinth of house should be high if the
region gets very high rainfall viz. Assam.
The building material (stones or bricks)
should be that which is available in
abundance.
The soft stones are suitable for carving or
sculpture.
In North-east part of India Bamboo is
plentily available, the walls and roof are
made of Bamboo.

43. 35
Provision of water - Water is essential during and
after the construction. Hence the architect should dig a
well in the plot. Digging a well has following
advantages;
It makes provision of water necessary for all
construction activities.
It shows different sub stratum (soil or rock
layers) if the well is unlined. This helps in
seceding the depth and type of foundation.
The material excavated (stones, Murom and soil)
can be used as building material.
It is independent source of filtered water
available all the time.
The shadow of house should not cast on the well ,
except at noon
छायाां हदनाां क
ू पगता न िस्ता क
ू पो िास्तोममध्यदेिे न िस्तो । ॥
मयमत अ. २७
***.***

44. 36
A3 ORIENTATION – Dik-Saadhaan
After the selection of site for the proposed structure
(Vastu), the next step is to mark North-South and East-
West direction. The proposed structure has to designed
to get maximum sunlight, protection against rains and
strong winds. Hence marking cardinal points on the site
is necessary.
In ancient times there were instruments like magnetic
compass, hence the two major directions were fixed by
two methods 1- by shadow on sub in at sunrise and sun
set, or 2- by polar stars. These methods are described
below;
1 -Shadow stick (Shanku) method- In this method a
stick is erected on a plane surface, the height of which
should be about 32 cm. The shape should be conical
with tapering above the ground and pointed iron nail at
center of the circular base. With the help of a string a
concerti circle should be drawn. At the time of sun rise,
when the shadow this cone touches the circle, that point
is marked as West point. Similarly, at the time of sun
set when the shadow this cone touches the circle, that
point is marked as East point. The wooden cone is
removed and a line joining West and East points is

45. 37
drawn on the ground. A line perpendicular to east -West
direction is to mark North and south points. (See the
figure below)
Fig.A3.1 - Shadow stick
After the invention of a magnet, a hollow metal tube, in
the shape of fish, with a magnet inside was used as
Matsya Yantra. On the plane ground a flat bottom
vessel od filled with water and the metallic fish was
allowed to float . the mouth and tail of the fish used to
indicate North and South direction. Subsequently the
fish was made to rotate about an axle fixed to center of
vessel.
2 -Polar Stars (Saptarshee) method-
तारेमाकामहटक
े ध्रुिस्य समताां नीतेि लांबे नते । ॥
दीपाग्रेण तदैक्यतश्च कशथता सूत्रेण सौम्या हदिा ॥
There are seven stars, which are known as Monkey
stars ( Saptarshee -seven Sages). These stars are

46. 38
visible in a clear sky.The first two stars are known as
Pointer stars)
Polar Stars method
Three or more oil lamps are placed on ground in a
straight line such that the line is parallel to line of
pointer stars. This gives the North -South direction on
the ground, A line perpendicular to North-South line is
drawn to indicate East-west line. (See figure below).
3-Use of magnet -After the invention of a magnet, a
hollow metal tube, in the shape of fish, with a magnet
inside was used as Matsya Yantra. On the plane ground,

47. 39
a flat bottom vessel od filled with water and the metallic
fish was allowed to float. the mouth and tail of the fish
used to indicate North and South direction.
Subsequently the fish was made to rotate about an axle
fixed to centre of vessel.
***.***

48. 40
A4 Measurements Systems and Tools
For any construction activity one has to measure
length(L), mass(M), time (T).
Area (L2
), volume(L3
), speed (L/T), acceleration (L/T2
),
and angle (L/L) are derived units.
Each country has each units such as FPS (Foot-Pound-
Second) or MKS (Meter-Kilo- Second). To avoid a
confusion scientist all over the world adopted SI
(System -Internal. In this system smallest unit for
length is mm and smallest unit for mass is Newton mm.
In ancient India there were 18 states (as shown below
) and each state had its own style of architecture
(School of architecture named after some divine
architect. Out of these 3 styles prevailed. For example,
Kashyapa in North, Bhrugu in Middle and Maya in the
South India.

49. 41
Fig.A4.1 -Map of ancient India
Each style had its own system of units, which were
strictly followed by architects and his team. Fortunately
units of length were same in these 3 styles. Angul (19
mm) and Yojan (8000 meters) were the smallest and
longest unit. For area and volume each system had its
own units. Only few are listed below.
1-TIME (Kal Maan)
In India there were three ways of measuring time. The
time taken for shutting or opening the eyelids of an
ordinary man is called Nimish and this is the measure
of Kashyap. The time taken for uttering the vowel (a)
is called Maatra and is the measure of Bhrugu and
thetime taken for producing a sound by the thumb and

50. 42
the middle finger is called Truti and is the measure of
Maya. The following is the table of time measurements:
2 त्रुहट =लि 30 अिोरात्र-सौर मास.
2 लि-शनमेि 29 अिोरात्र-चाांद्र मास
5 शनमेि-काष्ठा 27 अिोरात्र = नक्षत्र मास
30 काष्ठा-कला 32 अिोरात्र-मल मास
10 कला-नाहिका ; घहट 35 अिोरात्र अश्विाि मास
2 नाहिका मुिूतम 40अिोरात्र=िज्ञस्तिाि मास,
15 मुिूतम अिः रावत्रः when they are equal. 3 ऋतु:अयन
15 अिोरात्र पक् 2 पक्षमास (प्रकमम) मास%Dऋतु
2 अयन:सांित्ससर, बत्ससर,
िायन
5 सांित्ससर-युग.
II SPACE (Digmaan)
Indians measure space with the band while the
western nations measure it with the foot. There are
different measures of space for different countries in
India as under.
Units of Length proposed by various Sages in their
texts

51. 43
Kashyap Yaw -Smallest
unit
8 Yaw= 1 Angul
Bhrugu Shalee -white
rice grain
4 Shalee=1
Angul
Maya Breehi- red rice
grain
2 Breehi=1
Angul
Aswalayn Anu- Millet grain 14 Anu=1 Angul
Boudhyayan Til-sesamum
grain
33 Til=1 Angul
Shaakataayan Kesh -hair 54 Kesh=1
Angul
# Angul is the length of the middle section of the
middle finger of a man.
Units of Space
Table of space is as under:
8 परमाणु =त्रसरेणु
8 त्रसरेणु = बालान
8 िालाग्र =शलक्षा
8 शलक्षा = यूका
8 यूका =अांगुल
3 अांगुल = मुवि.
4 मुवि = वितज्ञस्त
2 वितज्ञस्त = िस्त हकटक
ु .
4 िस्त=-दण्ि, धनुः
8 दण्ि =रज्जु.
250 रज्जु= िोि , गोरुन,
4 िोि-योजन,

52. 44
तजमन्याहद कशनिाांतां अांगुिाग्रात्सप्रसाररताः।
प्रादेि, ताल, गो कणम, वितरूपः स्युयमथािमां ॥ शिल्प रत्न
When the hand is stretched the length of it from the end
of the thumb to the ends of the four fingers is
respectively called Praadesh, Taal, GokarN and Vitasti .
The purposes for which the various measures of space
are used are noted below:
मुविः स्याद् यिपात्रादौ वितज्ञस्तिमस्त्रका हदिु ।
तालां वबबाहदक
े माने भिेत्तद्धशममतहद्वधौ ॥
योजनैदेि मूत्सयामहद दांिैामां च पत्तनम ् ।
रज्जुशभः क्षेत्रमारामान गृिादीन ् हकटक
ु शभस्तथा ॥
वितज्ञस्तना च यानादीन ् क्षुद्राणामांगुलेन तु ।
यिेनालापीयसाां मानां एिां मानिम विदुः ॥
शिल्प रत्न, मयमत
Measurements of sacrificial pots &c., should be given in
Mushtti , those of clothes in Vitasti, those of images &c.
in Tal, of earth and countries in Yojan, of villages and
towns in DaND, of gardens and fields in Rajju, of
houses, buildings in KiShku of carts and other
amenities in Vitasti of small things in Angul, & of very
small things in Yaw. This is the practice of stating
measurements. Measurement of Aay length, Vyay
breadth and Uday height of all things are given or stated
in these measures

53. 45
Besides these Kautilya in his Artha shastra gives the
following special measurements.
14 अांगुर = िमः, िलः, परररयः पदां called offset in
masonry.
42 अांगुल = िस्त in carpentry for sawers, cutters
and forts. &c.
28 अांगुल-िस्त for boats &c.
84 अांगुल = िस्त for earth works, pits, &c.
108 अांगुल = धनु: for roads, kilns, and towers of
fortifications.
10 दण्ि-रज्जु.
2 रज्जु पररदेि,-रज्जु शनितमन.
For measuring areas क्षेत्र one िस्त hand square is called
आसन and the table is as under:
1Hand square = आसन 4 माि = ितमनक
10 आसन= गोचमम 5 ितमनक = िाहटका =2 Acres.
64 गोचमम = काकज्ञणका
Guntha
4 िाहटका = क
ु टुम्ब Block.
4 काकज्ञणका= माि 20 क
ु टुम्ब= ग्राम Hamlet.
20 ग्राम = खेट Village. 20 खेट = खिमट Town.

54. 46
20 खिमट नगर city 2 नगर-पत्तन, राजधानी
Metropolis.
All areas क्षेत्र or विस्तार is measured in this way.
Cubical measurements are called घन , solid
measurements or राशि heaps. The smallest unit of
measuring corn etc., is the व्दयांगुल and the table runs as
under:
4 द्वयां मुल-पञचाांगुल 4 मुवि-क
ु टुम्ब
4 प्रस्थ-आटक, 4 पञचाांगुल-मुवि
4 क
ु टुम्ब -प्रस्थ, 8 आटक-द्रोण Basket
2 द्रोण = िूपम 11 िूपम = खारी 8 खारी िाि cartload.
Kautilya lays down the following rules for the
preparation of these measures
प्रशतमानाशन अयोमयाशन, मागथ मेकल िैलभयाशन, याशन िा
नोदक प्रदो.
िाभ्यािृवद्ध गच्छेयुः, ऊटणेनिािासां ।
िुटकसारदारुमयां समां चतुभामगशिखां मानां कारयेद् । अन्तः शिखां िा
।

55. 47
Measures should be made of iron, wood, earth or stone,
but they should be such that they would not expand or
increase by the action of water or extracts (milk oil &c.
) or contract or decrease by heat Wooden measures
should be made of dry heart wood, square, even at the
mouth with a rim which may be outside or inside and it
may project or be flush with the edge of mouth.
For liquids the following measures are used:
12 आचमनी = पली (Ladle,
माि
20 द्रोण= क
ु म्भ. Pot,
Bottle.
200 पली- द्रोण (Basket) 10 क
ु म्भ = िाि Cartload.
16 द्रोण = खारी (Cistern tin)
III गुणमान Qualities.
The smallest units of weight are सिमप, गुञजा, and तांदुल
respectively in कश्यप, भृगु and मय tests and the table
runs as under for the कश्यप system:
1माि =11 सिमप, 8 गुञजा, 10
तांदुल
4 किम= पल
16 माि= किम 16 पल= धरण

56. 48
4 किम= तौशलक 20 तौशलक = भार
10 भार= पल, पद 100 पल, पद = आयमानी
भृगु gives another table for use in his system.
5 गुांजा = माि 16 माि=किम, तौशलक, 4 किम:= पल
100 पल - तुला, 20 तुला भार 10 भार= आशचत
कौहटल्य gives the following rules for preparing scales
and weights.
1 काटतुला, अििस्ता, पदिती, प्रशतमानिती, मयूरपदाशधवष्ठता।
2 ििांगुलादूध्िममिादिाांगुलोत्तरादि तुलाः कारयेद् । लोिाधम पलादृिां
एक पलात्तराः यन्त्रमुभयतः शिक्य िा । पञचवत्रित्सपल लोिाां
हद्वसप्तत्सयगुलायामाां समिृत्ताां कारयेत ् । तस्याः पञचशलक मांिलां
बध्िा समकरणां कारयेद् ।
३ किोत्तरां पलां, पलोत्तरां दिपलां, द्वादि, पञचदि, वितररशत । तत
आिताांग दिोसरां कारयेद।
अधममािक: मािक: व्दौ, चत्सिार: अिोमासह्का: दि, वििांशत:,
वत्रांित, चत्सिाररांित ् ितशमशत ।
5 ज्ञव्दगुण लोिाांतुलां अत: िएणित्सयांगुलायामाां पररमाणीां कारयेद ।
तस्याःितपलादुध्िां वििशतः, पञचािद् ितशमशत पदाशनकारयेद ।
6 क
ु िुबाधम चतुरिभागा शनमनाशन कारायेद् ।

57. 49
1. Wooden scales should be eight िस्त lands long and
be erected on tripods, with receptacles pans on each
side and a pointer at top
2. Small scales should be of ten sorts ranging from six
to eighteen अांगुल in length. The receptacles or pins on
both sides should mage in weight from half पल to one
पल is and be of metal and should hay on both sides. The
bigger ones should be seventy-two अांगुल long with pans
circular in shape and thirty-five पल in weight and made
of metal; these pans should be hung by chains five पल
in weight and be equally balanced on both sides by
means of rings
3- The biggest scales should be made of two metals,
should be ninety-six अांगुल in length, and should have
baskets for pans. The weights for these should be one
hundred पल and twenty, fifty, or more up to one
hundred पल .
4&5- The small weights to be half माि, one, two, four,
eight, ten, twenty &c. up to one hundred माि.
6. Measures should be a किांब and its half, fourth and
eighth parts the big ones will be किम, पल and ten, twelve,
fifteen, twenty &c. up to one hundred. The bigger

58. 50
measures begin from one hundred पल and end in one
hundred पद.
Special measures and comparative measures are given
by कौहटल्य as under:
88 गौर सिमप = रूप्यमािक 16 रुप्यमािक =धरण(for
silver)
20 िैव्यमािक = धरण (for
copper)
20 तांदुल =िज्र धरण (for
silver)
10 मािधान्य = सुिणममािक 16 सुिणममापकिम = gos (for
gold)
16सुिणम माि =किम 4 किम =पल for gold
200 पलधान्य =द्रोण
84 क
ु िुांब =िारी of corn ¼ िारी =घहटका
16 क
ु िुांब =िारी of oil ¼ िारी =घहटका
The next measurement of गुण is गशत and is the most
prominent motion from place to place is called चलन and
it is measure
by the space travelled in a particular measure of time;
when a thing moves round itself it is called िलन and
this िलन is measured by कोणज or भोग the part of the
circle travelled in a measure of time. This part of the

59. 51
circle is measured by विकला and the table of the
measurements is --
I-Oldest
measurement
II- Oldest
measurement
III
60 विकला = कला
30 कला= राशि
12 राशि = िलय
प्रदक्षण
60 विकला = कला
60 कला=अांि
30 अांि = राशि
12 राशि =चि
60 विकला =
कला
16 कला =
वबम्ब
The term विकला as it occurs in both the older, and the
later measurements it frequently misleads the reader.
This is due to the development in the science of
preparing telescope. When a telescope revolves round
its axis it describes a circle and when the circumference
is closely packed with lines each line is a विकला.
The measure विकला thus gives us an idea of the length
of the telescope used. about fifty-five lines are drawn in
an अांगुल. In ancient India. Vernier' called पूिामपार by
recent writers of tenth century A. D. was not known in
those remote times or the विकला might have been
smaller still. कोण thus being the measure of an angle in
ancient texts like कश्यप and भ्रुगु for means not triangle

60. 52
but a third of the circle or an angle of 120 degrees. The
ancient word for a triangle is त्र्यस्त meaning a three-
sided figure; thus a चतुटकोण, िटकोण अिकोण &c. have
different meanings in old texts from those in later
manuscripts or modern nomenclature. In पूिामपार nine
ordinary parts are divided into ten divisions and the
difference between these new parts and the ordinary
parts gives measurements up to a tenth part of the
ordinary divisions.
Currency for sale or purchase was in very different
forms =Kowde (sea shell), Pana ( smallest copper
coin),Roupya (Silver coin), Mohar (gold coin) etc.

61. 53
A5- Significant Aspects of Hindu Vastu Shastra
Vast shastra deals with construction of houses. This
includes tents to palaces, deities, temple construction,
construction of pyres. The umbrella term for all such
things is “Vastu“. The place in which someone can stay
is called Vastu. The word is derived from a Sanskrit root
“Vas“ meaning to dwell.
Hindu Vastu Shastra has following significant aspects
which are not found in any other architectural style of
the world.
1. An emotional bond
2. Site selection
3. Good neighborhood
4. Five Ceremonies
5. Sixteen Transformations related to building
materials
6. Four-fold classification in Shilpa Shastra
These aspects are briefly discussed briefly.
1 – An emotional bond- Bond between the Vastu
(House) and its owner:- Vastu is defined as below;
अमयामश्र्चैि मत्सयामश्र्च यत्र यत्र िसांशत हि।
तव्दज्ञस्थशत मतां तज्िैिानी िेश्म तदेि हि॥मयमत अ.

62. 54
The meaning of the above verse is “Vastu is a place
where a person lives with living things (Martya -which
undergoes through birth and death cycle viz. his family,
servants, domestic animals) and non-living things
(Amartya- which is free from birth and death cycle viz.
his fore fathers and gods in invisible forms)“. Indian
scriptures therefore prohibit the house occupants from
doing any sin or uttering bad words.
A house for people of the other contraries means an
asset which can be sold or purchased at any place and
at any time.
2 – Site selection: - A suitable site for any
construction is essential. Hence site selection is first
part. Earth is the first basic elements (Pancha
mahabhootaa). It should be explored first, planning of
structure comes after.
भूतानामाहदभूत्त्िादधारत्सिाज्जगज्ञत्सस्थते: ।
पूिं भूशमां पररक्षेत साधनां तदनांतरच ॥ भृगुसांहिता अ.४
SV- Five basic elements
In ancient time land, for house construction, was
abundantly available. The owner had a choice to select

63. 55
a plot. The plot was selected after performing certain
field tests. PuraNas (Hindu scriptures) and all Vastu
texts contains a separate chapter on the field testing
(Bhumi Parikshya or Desh NirNaya -Testing of ground).
All these tests are scientific and based on Environmental
considerations.
Ashwalyan Gruhyasutra mentions that,
These tests were;
The soil at the site should be non-saline, full of
grass and trees, free from thorny and milky
trees,
Ground should not be excessively uneven.
The possession of the plot should be non-
disputable).
The ground should be sloping towards North or
east.
अनूिर अवििाहदटणुभूम। औिशधिनस्पशतिद्।
याज्ञस्मन क
ु ििीररण प्रभूतां। क
ां टहकक्षीररणस्तुसमूलान ् पररखायोद्वासयेद्।
अपामागम: िाक: वबल्िक: पररव्याध इत्सयेताशन।
आश्वलायन गृह्यसूत्र २-७-२ ते ५
As per Goubhila Gruhyasutra, the unsuitable sites are;

64. 56
Near to offices, temples, with surface like a back
of tortoise
With no approach road or too may roads.
समां लोमिां अविभ्रांशि ।प्राचीनोदक्श्रिणे च । यत्र
अक्षीररण्यो क
ां टहकनो, कटुकाश्च ओिधय:स्यु: ।
गौशभलगृह्यसूत्र
Most of the Vastu Texts describe few simple visual
tests, based on 5 senses of human perception (Eyes,
Nose, Tongue, Ear and Skin) for soil. For other uilding
materials only 2 or 3 tests are used.These tests are;
Color- (VarNa ), Smell -(Gandha), Taste -(Rasa ), Sound
(Shabda) and Touch (Sparsh)
Few texts recommend two additional tests such as,
Shape of grains (Aakar) and Dik (Slope of plot),Ref.SV
7.04.
िणमगांधरसाकारहदक्िब्दस्पिमनैरवप ।
पररक्ष्यैि यथायोग्यां गृिीयाद्द्द्रव्यमुत्तमम ् ॥ भृगुसांहिता अ.४
Identification tests

65. 57
a - Color: The color of soil can be white, red, and yellow
in order preference. But soil with black color is not
suitable for construction. SV 7.05,
श्वेता रक्ता च पीताच कृ टणा भूस्तु चतुविमधा ।
तेिामाद्यास्त्रयोग्राह्याश्च्तुथी िज्ञजमता बुधै: ॥ भृगुसांहिता अ.४
based on color
b- smell: The smell of soil can be similar to that of
clarified butter, blood, oil or fish. The soil having smell
of fish is not desirable. SV7.06,
घृत्सगांधा रक्तगांधा तैलगांधा तथैि च ।
मत्सस्यगांधा भिेद्भूशममममत्सस्य गांधा ना िोभना॥
भृगुसांहिता अ.४
based on smell
c - Taste: The taste of soil can be sweet, pungent, sour
or bitter. Soil with bitter taste is not desirable. SV7.07
based on taste
मधुरा च किाया च आम्लका कटुका तथा ।
भूशमश्चतुविमधा प्रोक्ताकटुका तत्र गहिमता ॥ भृगुसांहिता अ.४

66. 58
d - Shape of grains: The grains of soil can be circular,
square, hexagonal or octagonal. Soil with circular
grain is not desirable.
चतुरस्त्रा ििस्त्राच अष्ठस्त्रा ितुमलाकृ शत: ।
भूशमश्चतुविमधा प्रोक्ताितुमला तत्र गहिमता॥ भृगुसांहिता अ.४
based on shape of grains
e - Slope of plot: The ground should be slopping
towards east or north but not towards south. SV7.09,
प्रागूत्तरप्लिां योग्यां अिाग्दज्ञक्षणगहिमतां॥ भृगुसांहिता अ.४
SV- based on slope of plot
f- Sound of ground: The sound of ground, when
stroked with wooden hammer, should be Gambhir
(deep).
गांशभरशननदाभूशम: शिल्पकमामज्ञण पूज्ञजता ॥ भृगुसांहिता अ.४
based on sound of ground
g- Touch of ground: The touch of ground should warm
in winter and cold in summer.
एकिणाम घना ज्ञस्नग्धा सुखसांस्पिमनाविता।
मयमत अ ३

67. 59
िीतरज्ञश्मसमस््िा शनदाघे तु िुभािनी॥१९॥
पौटकर सांहिता अ ३
लधुसैकतासांयुक्ता सुखस्पिम युतावप िा ।
शनवबिा स्यादुतोयाढ्या सशमपजल िविमणी ॥२०॥
विश्वकमम िास्तुिास्त्र अ ५
घमामगमे हिमस्पिाम या स्यादुटणाहिमागमे ।
प्रािृटयुटण हिमस््िा सा प्रिस्ता िसुांधरा ॥५०॥
समराांगण सूत्रधार अ १०
based on touch of ground
The ground surface should not be full of stones or dust.
Such surface is uncomfortable the occupants of the
house.
साप्रोक्ताऽबिुपाांसु रक्षय जला तुल्या च िीतोटणतो: ।
सांकीणामबिु िक
म रा च कहठना गभांविता शनांहदता ॥
Ground surface of plot
3 Good neighborhood Another significant aspect of
ancient Hindu Vastu shastra is the consideration of
good neighborhood before site selection. Such
consideration is totally absent in other styles of
Architecture.
A good neighborhood depends upon six factors;
1 - Land, 2 -Water, 3 -Vegetation, 4- Birds, 5 -
Animals and 6- Human beings. The happiness
and peace in a habitat depend upon these

68. 60
factors. Each factor from Architectural point of
view is discussed below.
1) Land: Nearness of steep hill slopes can cause to
damage to house due to landslides. House constructed
in mountain valleys may be submerges during floods
2) Water is essential for drinking, bathing and washing.
Agriculture depends on Irrigation. Many civilizations
grew on the banks of river. As per Vastu owner must
dig a well in his premises before starting building
construction. Town planning laws also insist on this
practice.
There was one well for three houses in Mature Harappan
Period (2450 B.C. More than 700 well were discovered
at Mohenjo-Daro with population 40-50,000. Each
house had its own bath and toilet. The level of technical
excellence, used in construction of Bathing and Toilet
facilities at Mohenjo-Daro was unique in ancient world.
Sewage System- At Mohenjo-Daro there was well
planned network of waste water drains built of burnt
brick masonry . These drains were parallel to unpaved
street. The U-shaped drains were covered with
flagstones which can be removed for occasional

69. 61
cleaning. Corbelled culvert for drainage chamber.
Arches were not used due lesser stability than Corbelled
construction. Well were circular.
Kautilya’s Arthashastra insists that Hundreds of water
pots filled with water should be kept ready at all squares
for firefighting.
In a village or its outskirts there should be six water
tanks, four wells or step wells and six reservoirs. Ref.
Jalashaya PrakaraN, Vastu Manikya Ratnakar.
पूरस्य मध्येऽवप तथैि बाह्ये जलाियो धममिता विधेय: ।
क
ु ण्िाशन िट्िेदशमताश्च िाप्य: दकामगमलां हदक् हि रसास्तिागा:॥१॥
Ground water indication - At the site four clay pot oil
lamps are lighted. A place where the lamp gets coated
with wet mud, it that place where there would be ample
ground water. Ref. Vastu Manikya Ratnakar.
भूमौ प्रज्िालयेद्दीपां चतुहदमक्षु समाहित:।
दीप: सकदममो यत्र तत्र तोयां न सांिय: ॥२५॥
3) Vegitation- Ancient Indians had deep knowledge
about the botany. Ancient texts like Mayamat, Brihat
Samhita , Sakaladhikar etc contain names and

70. 62
description of more than 150 trees which are still
available in most parts of India.
Big trees damage the house if these are allowed to grow
in the vicinity. Hindu Vastu Shastra contains guidelines
on specific trees permitted to grow near Habitat.
High trees or fruit bearing trees may be allowed,
provided they cast no shadow at noon or overtop the
building. The distance of tree from house should be
twice the height of tree.
Some holy trees may be allowed to grow near buildings,
but they should be confined to a certain area within a
circular wall. Trees transgressing this boundary by
breaking through it, should be pruned to avoid damage
to the building. The type of vegetation on the house plot
is indication the type of sub-soil and depth of ground
water
Tree confinement

71. 63
छेद्या मांहदर तश्चतरुश्र्चयुगसीमाभ्याांतस्थाम यहद ॥ मनुटयालय
चांहद्रका
यामादूध्िममिेिा िृक्षजशनता छाया िस्तते गृिे ॥ राजिल्लभ
One should construct a house on a plot on which there
are no milky or thorny trees, but if such trees exist,
those should be destroyed completely.
Trees like Vat in east, Udumbar in south, Pipal in west
and Plakshy in north of a house are considered
auspicious. A plant of Tulsi (Holy Basil) gives more
comforts than a plant of gold (as learned people say)
Ref. Vastu Manikya Ratnakar.
िस्तां पूिे िटां गेिादुदुम्बरतरुां तथा
याम्येऽश्वथां पज्ञश्चमे च सौम्ये िृक्षां सुिोभनम ्।
िास्तुमध्ये स्िणमतुल्य िृक्षां नैि तु रोपयेत
रोपयेत तुलसीिृक्षां सुखदां ह्यज्ञजरे बुध: ॥१७१॥
4) Birds: This factor is NOT discussed any of the texts
on Vastu. The presence of birds indicates pollution free
surroundings (especially sound and electro-magnetic
pollution). Vastu texts mentions that birds like

72. 64
peacock, parrots, sparrows taking shelter on nearby
trees is acceptable but not the other birds like owls,
eagles and vultures which create firth in the vicinity.
5) Animals: clean domestic animals - cows, horse or
elephant is acceptable. This factor is discussed in some
Vastu texts through provision of cow shed etc.
6) The nearness of human beings: This factor is very
important. Texts on Town planning take this factor into
consideration. But except Bhrugu Shilpa Samhita, no
other text on Vastu discusses this factor.
Neighborhood of human beings: neighbors should be
similar, in Physique, hearts (culture or customs) and
minds (thoughts or languages). Such neighbors always
help each other then only the neighborhood becomes
comfortable peaceful. SV x.x.
समाशनि: िरीराज्ञण समाशन ऋदयशनि:।
समानस्तुिोमना यथान: सुसिासशत ॥ भृगुसांहिता अ.?
Good neighborhood
Five Ceremonies -In general Indian people love
festivals and celebrate one or another festival
throughout the year. There were five ceremonies
related to Hindu Vastu shastra.

73. 65
1. First ceremony was to take permission from King,
forest officer, city mayor. It was some sort of land
recording.
2. Section of land was second ceremony. Section of
Engineer or Architect (Sthapati) is done by owner and
selection of Assistant Engineers/ Overseer (Sutragrahi)
by Engineer (Sthapati) and or owner. All the work till
end was to be executed by these two. In case of death
of any one, his son or student used to take over the
work. In second ceremony the plan of house by owner
is handed over to Engineer (Sthapati) along with some
token (lock and key).
3. This third ceremony was erection of frame of main
door.
4. Forth ceremony was section of Takshyak (carpenter)
to erect the wooden pillar of the house.
5. The last ceremony was house warming ceremony
(Vastu shantee) to get acquainted with neighbors.
In the last ceremony the Engineer (Sthapati) used to
handover the lock and key to the owner. Owner, in turn,

74. 66
used to honor the Engineer and his team of workers
with suitable gifts.
After the completion of construction work, the workers
have to be suitably paid.
Chief architect or engineer -50%
Second officers- 12.5%
Third officers -12.5 %
Forth officers -25%.
सिेिामशधमनो मुख्यास्तदधेनापरे तथा ।
तृतीविनस्तृ तीयोश्श्चतुथोिश्च पाहदन:
भृगुसांहिता अ .३
Payment to workers
Sixteen Sanskaras and Building Materials
Samskaras are the turning points of human life and
need to be celebrated.
Celebrations are very important ingredients of
Samskaras. Samskaras are great, time-tested tools in
our traditional systems which help carve out a great
personality. These famous sixteen Samskaras of
Hindus, which cover the entire life span of a person and

75. 67
take him to the door steps to Truth, are explained
below.
Explanations of Sanskaras
1. Garbhadan The first coming together of the husband
& wife for bringing about conception.
2. Pumsvan Ceremony performed when the first signs
of conception are seen, and is to be performed when
someone desires a male child.
3. Seemantonayan -A ceremony of parting of the hairs
of the expectant mother to keep her spirits high &
positive. Special music is arranged for her.
4. Jatakarma- After the birth of the child, the child is
given a secret name, he is given taste of honey & ghee,
mother starts the first breast-feeding after chanting of
a mantra.
5. Nama-karana -In this ceremony the child is given a
formal name, performed on the 12th day.
6. Nishkramana -In this the formal introduction of sun
& moon is done for the child.

76. 68
7. Annaprashana -This ceremony is performed, when
the child is given solid food (anna) for the first time.
8. Chudakarana- Chuda means the ‘lock or tuft of hair’
kept after the remaining part is shaved off.
9. Karna-vedha- Done in 7th or 8th month comprises
of Piercing of the ears. 10. Upanayan & Vedarambha or
the thread ceremony. The child is thereafter authorized
to perform all rituals. Studies of Vedas begins with the
Guru.
11. Keshanta- Hairs are cut, guru dakshina is given.
12. Samavartan- Returning to the house.
13. Vivaha -Marriage ceremony.
14. Vanprastha- As old age approaches, the person
retires for a life of tapas & studies.
15. Sanyas -Before leaving the body a Hindu sheds all
sense of responsibility & relationships to awake & revel
in the timeless truth.
16. Antyeshthi -The last rites done after the death.

77. 69
One of the unique features of ancient Indian
Shilpashastra is Sanskaras or specific process for every
building material. These Sanskaras are explained with
one example (Clay) in a table below
Sixteen Sanskaras Related to Soil
1 Garbhadan- Search suitable soil.
2 Punsavan- Confirm suitability.
3 Simantoshyan-Estimate quality.
4 Jatakarm- Excavate soil.
5 Namakaran- Name the soil.
6 Bandhan- Sieving of soil.
7 Darshan- Testing of soil.
8 Prashan -Decide quantity of water to be added.
9 Chudakarm- Check the plasticity of soil.
10 Upanayan -Compare with standard material.
11 Sankar -Mixing additive (sand, hemp etc).
12 Karmapravesh- Use for binding or plastering.
13 Prasthan -Reject unsuitable materials.

78. 70
14 Antyavidhi- Discard the material used.
15 Pindidan and 16 Shraddha -Not applicable.
6 -Four-fold classification in Shilpa Shastra: This is
another significant feature of Hindu Vastu Shastra
which is misinterpreted as Caste system mentioned in
texts like Manu Smruti
िणमशलांगियोिस्था: पररक्षचबलाबल ।
यथायोग्यांयथास्थानां सांस्कारान्कारयोसुधी: ॥ भ्रुगुसांहिता
1 –VarNa (Color) – In Color based classification system
the four colors (in descending order) are white,2-Red.
3-Yellow and 4-Black. The reasoning behind this as
below.
White surface reflects most of the light falling on it
hence white color is considered as best. But Black
surface absorbs most of the light falling on it hence
black colour is considered as worst. Remaining colors
viz. Red. Yellow, green and blue come between these
two extreme colors. The four main colours were known
as Brahmin, Kshyatriya, Vaishya and Shudra.
Unfortunately, most of the Sanskrit translators, mis-
interpreted the terms as caste system in Hindu religion.

79. 71
In fact it should be interpreted as grade I,II,III and IV.
Ancient Indian authors have classified all thing, from
alphabets to solar system. This can be seen from the
Table below.
Table A5.1 - Four-fold classification in Indian Texts
Color White Red Yellow Black
Grade /
Class
Bramhi
n
Kshyatriy
a
Vaishya Shudra
Solar
System
Jupitor
,Venus
Sun,
Mars
Moon,
Budha
Saturn,
Rahu
Physical
Element
s
Light
(Tej)
Wind(Va
yu)
Jala(Wat
er)
Earth(Pru
thwi)
Living
Things
Human Animals
/ Birds
Trees Non-
Living
Mineral
s
Metals Igneou
s Rocks
Sediment
ary
Soil
Trees With no
core
Core
inside
Core
outside
All Core
Assar-
With no
core
Holy fig
(Udumba
r)
Pipal Vata Plakshya
Anta
Saar -
Core
inside
Shisam
(Ebony)
Chanda
n
(Sandal
wood)
Sarja
(Teak
Pine (
Devadar)

80. 72
Bahissa
r -Core
outside
Coconut Arecak
a palm
Bamboo Cane
Sarwas
ar-All
Core
Shamee Khair Babhul Tamarin
d
Animals Human Two
legged
Four
legged
No
leg(Serp
ant)
Types
of Men
Learned Warrior
s
Bussiness
men
Laborer
Metals Gold Silver Copper Iron
Metamo
rfic
Rocks
Marble Kurund Soft kaar
Sedime
ntary
Rocks
Shabadi
Stone
Bhopali Katni Shakhaji
re
Soils White Red Yellow Black
Birds Swan,
Egale
Shyen Cookoo Crow
Animals Cow Horse Sheep Lamb
Wild
Animals
Lion Tiger landga Fox
Horses Wajee turang ashva Haya
Vedas Sama
Veda
RigVed
a
Yajurveda Atharva
Veda

81. 73
Vidya
(Techni
que)
Medicine Enginee
ring
Astrology Agricultu
re
Meditati
on
Dhyaan Yog Bhakti Karma
Wars Mantrik Yantrik Shastra Malla
Ashram
as
Sanyas Vanapr
astha
Gruhastha Bramhac
harya
College
s
Suhrud Mitra Shatru Udaseen
Alphabe
ts
Swar(Vov
els)
Ya.ra.la
,va
Sha
,Sha,sa,h
a
Nasal
2 – Linga (Gender) – Linga is related to intrinsic quality
of construction materials(Stones, Bricks, trees etc) and
has nothing to deal with sex. As per Hindu Vastu shastra
there are three genders as described below;
Masculine (Pullinga) – A material which is ;
Strong in compression,
Granular in structure, solid and uniform
Uniform in length, width and thickness.
Hard inside but soft outside
Light and strong.
Feminine (Streelinga)- A material whish is

82. 74
Strong in tension or bending.
Fibrous or layered in structure,
Non-Uniform in length, width and thickness,
Broad at base and narrow at top.
soft inside but Hard outside
Heavy and strong.
Neuter (Napunsak Linga)-
o Brittle, weak
o Heterogeneous
o Having no significant quality or use
3 Vaya (Age) – It is the time elapsed from the birth.
Age has five stages viz. 1-Baalatv -childhood, 2-Koumar
(Youth),3-Yauvan(Develped),4- Vardhakya(Oldness)
and 5-Nidhan (Death or decay).
All biological species -Trees, animals and human being
have to pass through these five stages and our Sages
grouped their study under one branch -Krushee Shastra
or Biological Sciences (Botany and Zoology).
बालत्सिां कौमारां यौिनमथ िाधमक
ां च शनधनां च।
पांचियाांस्तेतेिामांत्सयेनेिै शििानीिाशन ॥ भृगुसांहिता अ.
five stages –

83. 75
Infant (बालत्सिां), child (कौमारां), Youth (यौिन), Old िाधमक
ां and
death (शनधनां)
4- Awastha –(present State) – There are four state of
any material. These are
a) Prakuti (original state)
b) Sanskruti (usable state)
c) Sankruti (improvised state)
d) Vikruti (Deformed state).
6 Sixteen types of lands: Authors of ancient Indian
Vastu texts (Vastu Samhita) very intelligently classified
the lands into Sixteen types. This classification was
based on following factors;
Geological feature (nearness of land, river,
rainfall wind directions, natural defense system,
etc).
Nature of people (soft spoken, Quarreling, law
abiding, business minded, Non-united etc.
Type of forests, forest wealth and wild animals.
Type of Irrigation -Dependent on rain water or
self-dependent).

84. 76
The ancient text SamarangaN Sutradhar (By King Bhoj),
chapter 8, V 10 to 25 gives the detailed description of
these 16 types of lands.
..
१-
बाशलिस्िाशमनी-
भू भुजाजा बाशलिेनावप िक्यते या प्रिाशसतुम ्।
या च भद्रजना सा स्याब्दाशलिस्िाशमनी ज्ञक्षशत:
॥ १०॥
२- भोग्या वितरांत्सयशधक
ां यस्या भागभोगाहदकान ् करान ्।
नरा भूररशश्रय: सात्र भोग्येशत ज्ञक्षशतरुच्चाते ॥
११॥
३- सीतागोचर यस्याां नदाश्च नद्यश्च शगररममध्येऽथिा बहि:।
विभक्तक्षेत्रसीमा सा सीता गोचररज्ञक्षणी ॥१२॥
४- अपाश्रयिती सररदहद्रिनाद्येिु त्रासाद्यस्याां वििेज्जन:।
िनापश्रययोग्यत्सिाद पाश्रयितीशत सा ॥१३॥
५-काांता िनोपिनित्सयहद्र सररतक
ुां ज मनोिरा ।
देहिनो रमयत्सयुिी या सा काांतेशन कीतीता
॥१४॥
६-खशनमती यस्याां सदैि जायन्ते कलधौताहदधाति: ।
लिणाशन च भूयाांशस प्रािु: खशनमतीशत
ताम ्॥१५॥
७-आत्समघाररणी यात्सय न्तां नानुगृह्येत दण्ड्कोिासनहदशभ: ।

85. 77
स्फीत्सलोकाश्रया या च सा स्याभ्दरात्समधाररणी
॥१६ ॥
८-
िज्ञणकप्रसाशधता
प्रशसध्यन्त्सयसकृ द्यत्र पणयोपियवििया: ।
िज्ञणक्प्रसाशधतेत्सयुक्ता सा भूिमज्ञणगलड्िता ॥१७
॥
९-द्रव्यिती िाकाश्र्िकणम खहदर:श्रीपणीस्य चन्दनासमनै: ।
िेणुिेत्रिराद्यैश्च युक्ताद्रव्यिती शत भू: ॥१८ ॥
१०-
अशमत्रधाशतनी
यस्याां जनपदा: साधु विभक्त्तात्सकस्त्सय वििमा:
।
योगां याांशत च शमत्राज्ञण स्याद् भूद:
साशमत्रधाशतनी ॥१९ ॥
११- आश्रेणीपुरुिा न क्षुद्रा िांहदनो यस्याां दुगमप्रत्सयांन्तसश्रया:।
भू: सा श्रेणी मनुटयेशत विनीतैराशश्रताजनै: ॥२१॥
मांत्रोत्ससािाहदिैमुख्यां यस्याां सामांतभूभुज: ।
भजांते सा स्मृता िक्यसामांता भू: समन्तत:
॥२॥
१२ -िक्यसामांता जीिांशत क्षेवत्रणो यस्याां नदी नद्याहदिाररशभ: ।
ताां नदीमातृक
े त्सयािरनपेज्ञक्षत िाररदाम ् ॥२२॥
१३-नदी मातृका देिोनद्यांबुतृटट्यांबु सांपनाब्रीहि पाशलत:।
स्यानदीमातृकोदेिमतृकस्च यथािमां ॥
अमरकोि
१४ – घान्या शनटमद्यांते ऽशधक
ां यस्याां बीजाांन्युप्तान्यायत्नत:।

86. 78
कृ िानुपहृतक्षेत्रा धान्या सा धान्यिाशलनी ॥२३॥
१५-
िज्ञस्तिनोपेता
पयंतेटिद्रिो यस्याां या च िज्ञस्तिनाश्रीता।
सा िज्ञस्तिनव्त्सयुिी भूभृत: सैन्यिशधमनी
॥२४॥
१६- सुरक्षा दुटप्रधृटयैि या शनव्यां वििमत्सिादराशतभी: ।
वििमाहद्रसाररग्दुप्ता सा सुरक्षेशत भू:स्मृता ॥२५
..

87. 79
PART B – CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
B1 Ancient Building Science
INTRODUCTION: UNESCO has declared till today 125
structures as heritage structures and the responsibility
of preservation and maintenance of these structures
lies with the respective country within which these
structures are located. Sixteen heritage structures in
India are being maintained by the Archeological Society
of India (ASI).
1-THE SECRETS OF ENDURANCE: The secret of
endurance of Indian heritage structures lies in three
factors;
1. Selection of the most suitable Site
2. Use of time-tested Construction materials and
3. construction techniques based on experiences
gathered by the artisan through many generations
The first factor is discussed in another chapter and
remining two factors are discussed briefly.
As per Mayamat, mud, bricks, lime, stones, wood,
metals and precious stones should be used in
construction of houses.
मृहदिासुधािैलफलकाहदशभवत्तक
ां ।

88. 80
िेमरत्नाहदसहितां गृिां कायं यथाबलां ॥ मयमत अ २०
The building science is an inter-disciplinary topic and it
requires the knowledge of civil Engineering,
architecture as well as archeology. Whatever the type
of construction and the binding materials the ancient
civilization used; it can be seen that those structure
built by using such materials have survived for several
hundred years.
The major types of construction materials were found
to be clay, stones, mud bricks, lime, timber, timber, etc.
It can be claimed that even at that time engineers were
aware of the properties and importance of the durability
of construction material. However modern structures
made by using modern building materials have
experienced significant deterioration throughout their
service life, generally less than hundred years.
The excavations of the ruins at Mohenjo-Daro and
Harappa (today in Pakistan) proved the existence of a
developed urban civilization in India. The Indus valley
civilization is dated around 3000 BC Thus since the last
5000 years.
hese points are briefly described below.

89. 81
Construction techniques: There were no time and
cost constraints for the construction of heritage
structures. Indigenous techniques were used to
maintain the quality of construction. Few techniques are
discussed below;
a. Compaction of foundation stratum: Durability of the
structure depends upon proper compaction of
foundation stratum. Well graded materials (cobbles,
gravels, sands and clays) were used and properly
compacted by rammers of the size of elephant foot.
b. Leveling of various layers: Very close quality control
on levels and verticality of surfaces, was maintained.
Special tools were developed to check the levels and
heights of various components.
c. Proper load distribution: Structural loads were
properly distributed with series of columns and beams.
Roofs were prepared by proper interlocking of building
elements (stones or bricks).
***.***

90. 82
B2 Mud as construction materials
Definitions
Soil –It is an aggregate of inorganic and organic
grains which can be separated by simple
mechanical action such as agitation in water or
by sieving.
Clays: Clays are finest particles of soil with a size
smaller than 75 microns.
Mud – It is a workable mixture of clay soil and
water.
Kuttividya- Mud construction is one of the thirty-two
techniques of Shilpa Shastra. The two skills (Kala)
under mud construction are 1-Collection of Suitable soil
and 2- soil conditioning for a specific purpose wall
construction, plastering or flooring.
Soil or Mud was the cheapest and abundantly available
building material. Not much importance is given for
adobe construction by Bhrugu as he preferred stones.
Advantages of Mud construction
• relatively high thermal conductivity

91. 83
• sound insulation property.
• cost-effective,
• labor intensive
Disadvantages
• Mud construction has low strength and
durability compared to brick or stone
construction.
Soil for mud plasters
Color of soil was used as indicator of mud construction.
Though the black soil is good for agriculture, it is not
suitable for mud construction because it cracks on
drying. All most all Sanskrit Vastu texts contains similar
description that is summarized in the table below.
Table x.x- Visual Classification of Foundation
soils
Quality Good Averag
e
Poor Bad
Colour
White Red Yellow Black/
Blue
Smell
Pleasan
t
Like
Food
blood
Foul
Fishy/
Taste
Sweet Pungen
t
Bitter Sour/Salt
y

92. 84
Ground
slope
East North West South
Sound o
n impact
by
rammer
Drum Flute
Broken
Pot
Broken
Pot
Touch Oily
Pleasan
t
Unpleasa
nt hot/
cold
Unpleasa
nt hot/
cold
Few Sanskrit verses on this subject are quoted below
शसतरक्त पीतकृ टणा विप्रदीनाांप्रिस्त्तते भूशम: ।
विश्वकमम िास्तुिास्त्र अ १
श्वेता रक्ता च पीताच कृ टणा भूस्तु चतुविमधा ।
तेिामाद्यास्त्रयोग्राह्याश्च्तुथी िज्ञजमता बुधै: ॥ भृगुसांहिता अ.४
श्वेतरक्तातथ पीताच कृ टणा चैिानुिमि: ।११।
मत्सस्य पुराण अ २५
शसता रक्ता पीता कृ टणा चैि िमान्मिी ।
विप्रादीनाांहि िणामनाां सिेिामधमिा हिता ।४८।
समराांगणसूत्रधार अ १०
Classification according to Colour
The purpose of soil stabilization is to;

93. 85
Increase the workability with minimum water
content
• Increase the water repellent property
• Increase the strength by increasing the
density.
• Impart glazing to pottery products.
Ancient stabilizers or plasticizers can be grouped under
three heads as
a) Extracts of Herbs, Fruits and tree barks (Trifala-
Aamla, Hirda and Behada, Wood apple2
, Holy tree
fruit ,Barks-Khadir, Arjun trees,)
b) Natural fibers - Cotton, coir, wool, silk cotton or jute
etc.
c) Natural polymers - Cow Dung, jiggery, Coconut
water, Eggs, Green Algae, rice husk, burnt coconut
shell
This constancy of mud for plastering was determined
by rolling the clay mass on the palms. When the lines
of palm are clearly impressed on the clay mass the
constancy is proper.

94. 86
िस्तरेखाखाांहकतां वपण्िां मृज्ञत्सपण्िस्य
च सांद्यकमां।
सकलाशधकार अध्याय २५.५
Soil Stabilization: As per Shilparatna, the soil to be used
for mud plaster for walls and floorings, should be
submerged in knee deep water in a pit. Frequent
kneading of the soil should be done.
Extracts of barks of milky trees (as mentioned above)
should be added to wet soil and kneaded by expert
potter daily for one month.
ताां प्रज्ञक्षप्य िटे मृस्ना जानुदघ्रां जलां ज्ञक्षपेन।
आलोढ्य पदांशभ: सक्षोग्य मदमयेत्ता पुन:पुन:॥
तत: क्षीरगैरीि त्सिक् क्िाथवत्रफलाांबुशभ:।
मदमयेन्मासमात्रां तु तत्सकमम क
ु िलौनरै: ॥ शिल्परत्न अ.१४
***.***

95. 87
B3 BRICKS and ROOFING TILES
5.0 Origin of Bricks
The Sanskrit word for brick is "Istika" meaning comfort
giving or well being.
According to Shatapatha Brahman the tired god
Prajapati was rejuvenated by other gods by offering him
as a sacrifice to the fire. On being burnt, the mud blocks
of fire place (Yadnya kund) turned into a baked brick.
Therefore, bricks were produced by baking in fire.
From the various Vedic texts, it can be said that Sage
Angirus was an authority on brick making.
Sage Angirus was an authority on brick making. Ref.
Shatapatha Brahman
Quality bricks: Detailed information about types of
bricks and process of manufacture is are given Maya
Samhita and Kashyapa Samhita.As per Bhrugu
Samhita, the bricks should be properly fired, smooth,
with proper shape and without holes.SV7.16,
सुज्ञस्नग्धा: समदग्धाश्च सुस्िरास्ता: सुिोभना: ।
स्त्रीशलांगाश्चावप पुज्ञल्लांगा भेदशछद्राहदिशचमता: भृगुसांहिता अ.५

96. 88
Quality bricks
Selection of bricks
Bricks - Properly fired, sound and free from voids.
सुघना:समदग्धाश्च सुस्िराश्चेिका:िुभा:।
स्त्रीशलांगाश्चावपपुज्ञल्लांगा भांगशछद्राअहदिज्ञजमत:॥
मयमत अ. १५
Processes of Brick / Tiles making
The process of making bricks is recorded in Shilparatna,
(c14, v48-51). Various stages involved in brick making
are discussed below,
Selection of site for brick earth and collection of
soil
Wetting & Kneading the brick earth, Mixing of
additives.
Hand molding of bricks
Sun dying of bricks
Kiln Preparation and firing the bricks
Cooling and quenching of bricks
Rejecting damaged or non standard bricks
Testing of bricks
Classification & qualities

97. 89
Selection of soil for brick making: Soil should be
selected from sites which are inhabited by humans. The
excavated soil should be sun dried and mixed with
water full of algae and kneaded to make soft lump.
The soil is formed by weathering of rocks due to heat,
water etc. Colors of soils are different but soils of four
basic colors such as white, red, yellow or black are
common. As per Vishnudharmottar Purana (Vol. 3
Chp.91) soils classification based on color, is as below,
Best- White
Red-Good
Yellow-Average
Black-worst
Other texts such as Vastu Vidya (Chp.16) and Mayamat
(Chp.15) have similar information. The excavated soil
should be sun dried and mixed with water full of algae
and kneaded to make soft lump.
Additives for brick earth: Texts such as Shilparatna
(C14, V48.) and Mayamat (C17, V 17) recommends
following additives be added to improve
the quality of brick earth,
Extracts of barks of milky trees

98. 90
Fine sand and ferrous soils
Decoction of Trifala (three fruits-Amala, Hirida
and Behada)
Molds and Molding of bricks: The bricks were made in
the wooden molds of the required sizes. The molds were
made in such a way that the wooden planks on all the
four sides and the bottom could be separated. Vastu
Vidya recommends that wooden molds for bricks should
have minimum thickness of 20 mm. Shulbsutra
(Aapstamb) has given the measurements of molds
instead of the measurements of bricks. In pre historic
times, molds were made even for making statues. One
should not be surprised if molds were used for making
bricks.
The molds were first dusted with fine dry dust. The
stabilized clay was then poured into it with pressure.
The surface was smoothened by removing excess clay.
The part of the brick facing the east way its front
portion, the part facing the west was its back. Signs
were made on the brick with a pointed bamboo nail so
that its front and back could be easily identified. After
allowing the clay to dry for some time, the side and
bottom planks of the mould were removed, and the
brick was placed on the ground with the front portion of

99. 91
the brick upward. It was left to dry in the shade. When
it was dry, it was baked in fire. Even today, the bricks
are made almost in the same manner.
Sun dying of bricks: Vastu Vidya (c.19) mentions that
after partial drying of mud bricks with distorted shaped
bricks are tamped into proper size and were allowed to
dry further. Some special shaped bricks were prepared
by cutting the corners of partially dry bricks.
Firing of bricks: In ancient times, bricks or tiles were
baked in closed Kilns. Baking in closed Kilns saves fuel
there are no stains of smoke on the bricks. The
temperature of the Kiln was controlled; therefore, even
the big bricks were baked thoroughly. There is no doubt
that the process of baking bricks was fully developed in
the ancient times only.
Brick Kiln -The brick kiln should be ignited with dry
wood from tamarind or Palash tree. Dry grass, rice
husk and wood chips should also be used as
fuel.SV7.15
िुटकशचांचाहदिाखाशभरास्तीथं सुमुिुतमक
े
पलाि भासक
ै : पश्चाद ब्रीह्याभासैस्तुिैस्तथा
आच्छाद्याज्ञभ्द: समशसांचेद् िाखाां प्रज्िलयेत्तत: भृगुसांहिता अ.?

100. 92
Brick kiln
For baking, bricks were arranged in two ways. Smoke-
pipes were kept in the Kiln with their mouth towards the
air. Bricks or tiles were placed in the Kiln at a distance
from one another. In the space between the bricks were
placed the twigs of the trees like Pepal, Khadir etc. One
layer of bricks or tiles was covered with a layer of twigs
of Palash trees and the like after they laying the desired
number of layers were covered with a thick layer of
mud. Fire was introduced in the Kiln through the
smoke-pipes and the bricks were allowed to bake for
ten to fifteen days. After the fire died down, bricks or
tiles were taken out.
In the other method, the first layer was formed of the
twigs of Tamarind and like trees. The fuel spread on this
layer was covered with the twigs of trees.
Ref. -Shilparatna (c14.v51-54), Vastuvidya (c6.v20-32)
and Shilpadipak (c10v20)
Bricks or tiles were arranged on this in as many layers
as required. These were covered with tree twigs and
wheat chaff and the Kiln was set afire. The bricks or