Engineering applications of botany 2016

1-Engineering Applications of Botany-2016 Page 1
Engineering Applications
Of
Ancient Indian Botany
Edited By
Dr. A.S. Nene
Former Professor of Civil Engineering, VNIT
Nagpur

CONTENTS
Chapter Topic Page
0-Contents i
0.1-List of Figures iii
0.2-List of Sanskrit Verses iii
03-List of Tables iv
1-Prologue 01
2-Architecture & Civil Engineering
2.1-Rainfall Predictions 17
2.2-Water Purification. 17
2.3-Adobe Construction 19
2.4-Mud Pottery 25
2.5-Lime Mortars and Lime Plasters 27
2.6-Colors and Pigments 31
2.7-Water Divining 35
2.8-Adamantine Glues 42
3-Miscellaneous
3.1 Breaking of stone blocks 60
3.2 Detection Of Defects In Rocks 60
3.3 Wood Varnishes 61
3.4 Preservation of ropes 62
4- Mining & Metallurgy
4.1-Gold plating of copper. 63
4.2- Foundry soils for metal casting 64
4.3- Tempering of Steel Implements 66
5-Aeronautics
5.1-Air Balloons 67
5.2-Light weight wood 67
6-Epilogue 68

7-References
7.1-Ancient References 69
7.2-Modern References 70
8-Annexure
8.1 Terms related to adamantine glues 71
8.2 Ingredient for Lime mortar & plasters 71
8.3 Botanical names of trees mentioned in
Shilpashastra(s)
72
9-About the Editor 77
***.***

1-List of Figures
SN Title of Figures Page
Fig1.01 Five parts of trees 11
Fig2.01 Flowering of Amaltash tree 17
Fig2.02 Clay palettes 18
Fig2.03 Nirmali seeds and Khus grass 19
Fig2.04 Wood block and Seeds 19
Fig2.05 Fruits 21
Fig2.06 Natural fibers 22
Fig2.07 Natural Polymers 23
Fig2.08 Hand molded bricks 23
Fig2.09 Brick Floating on Water 24
Fig2.10 Clay idols 24
Fig2.11 Mud floor 25
Fig2.12 Mud fort 27
Fig2.13 conches and oysters 30
Fig2.14 Ingredients for white color 31
Fig2.15 Ingredients for yellow color 32
Fig2.16 Ingredients for red color 32
Fig2.17 Ingredients for blue color 33
Fig2.18 Organic Colors for textile printing 33
Fig2.19 Restoration of cave painting 34
Fig2.20 Cave painting restoration 34
Fig2.21 Water Diviner 38
Fig2.22 Ingredient of herbal Mehandi 40
Fig2.23 Hide Glue (Sirus) 47
Fig2.24 Laxman Temple Sirpur 50
Fig2.25 Lime flooring of palace 50
Fig.3.01 Ingredients of herbal paint 61
Fig.3.02 Wood varnish 62
Fig.3.03 Preservation of ropes 62
Fig.4.01 Palash and Hartal 64
Fig.4.02 Metal statue 64
Fig.4.03 Ingredients for metal casting 65
2-List of Tables
SN Title of Table Page
Table1.1 Indian Botanical Classification 02
Table1.2 Classification by Gender 04
Table1.3 Unsuitable Trees 05
Table1.4 Worshiped Trees 07

Table1.5 Ancient Botanical Classification 09
Table2.1 The ingredients for water purification 18
Table2.2 Lime mortar & plasters : ingredient 29
Table2.3 Research Details 35
Table2.4 Ground symptoms for water 37
Table2.5 Constituents of herbal paste 39
Table2.6 Ingredients for Adamantine glues 43
Table2.7 Terminology 45
3-List of Sanskrit verses
SN Subject of Sanskrit verses Page
SV1.01 Biological Sciences 12
SV1.02 Indian Botanical Classification 12
SV1.03 Tree Classification by Gender 13
SV1.04 Seasoning of Trees 13
SV1.05 Felling the tree 14
SV1.06 Frames and door shutters 14
SV1.07 Preservation of Wood 14
SV1.08 Botanical Classification 14
SV1.09 Sentiments of Plants 15
SV1.10 Selection of trees for wood 16
SV1.11 Female trees for beams 16
SV1.12 Neutral trees for fire wood 16
SV1.13 Trees for low cost houses 16
SV1.14 Hatched roof 16
SV2.01 Treatment of Well water 51
SV2.02 Purification of drinking water 51
SV2.03 Bricks and Roofing tiles 51
SV2.04 Clay Mortar 52
SV2.05 Earthen pots 52
SV2.06 Glazing of earthen pots 52
SV2.07 Coloring of Clay pots 52
SV2.08 Ceramic pots 53
SV2.09 Sunla or Lime Putty 53
SV2.10 Leveling coat of lime plaster 53
SV2.11 Materials for Lime Plasters 53
SV2.12 Materials for Lime Plasters 54
SV2.13 Lime mortar for terrace 54
SV2.14 Basic four colors 54
SV2.15 White color 55
SV2.16 Yellow color 55
SV2.17 Red color 55

SV2.18 Black color 56
SV2.19 Blue color 56
SV2.20 Composite colors 56
SV2.21 Natural Colors 57
SV2.22 Ingredients of herbal foot paint 57
SV2.23 Uses of adamantine glues 57
SV2.24 Brihat Samhita formula 58
SV2.25 Mayamatam formula 58
SV2.26 Shilparatnakar Formula 59
SV2.27 Hide glue 59
SV2.28 Vajrasanghata 59
SV2.29 Utpala’s formula 59
SV2.30 Stone softening 60
SV3.01 Detection of cracks in stone 63
SV3.02 Wood varnish 63
SV3.03 Preservation of Ropes 63
SV4.01 Tempering of tools 66
SV5.01 Waterproof cloth 67
SV5.02 Light weight wood 67
***.***

1 PROLOGUE
Ancient Indian Botany: As per Sage Parashar Krushi Shastra or Biological
sciences include study of trees, animal and human, because all these have
to undergo three stages of life i.e. birth, grown and death. Ref SV1.1
Indians had deep knowledge about the trees since ancient time. Unlike
western botany, one can find very appropriate names for trees. Wood was
used since ages for chariots, carts and columns and beams of houses. Ancient
texts like Mayamat, Brihat Samhita Sakaladhikar etc contain names and
description of more than 250 names of tree which are still available in many
parts of India.
1.1 Indian Botanical Classification: Western Botanist divide trees into two
classes viz.; 1) Endogenous or growing from inside and 2) Exogenous or
growing from outside. Former is harder outside while latter is harder in the
central core.
Ancient Indian texts (Mayamat, Manushyalaya chandrika etc) however
mention four classes of trees viz.
1. Nissar – Trees having no hard core. Nissar trees are Ashwathha,
Nyagroth and Udumber. However thick these trees grow they form
no core. Their flowers are closed. Fruits are bunch of flowers
2. Antassar- Trees having hard core inside. Antassar trees (Exogenous
trees as per western Botanist), are Aamra, Panus, Nimb tree and
other trees.
3. Bahhissar – Trees having hard core outside. Bahhissar trees,
Endogenous trees as pre western Botanist, are Nadwat, Nariker,
Poog and others of this class.
4. Sarvassar- Trees having core throughout their cross-section.
Sarvassar trees are hard throughout the cross-section. Tintini,

Shak, Shirish and Bhallatak tree are the examples of this class. Ref
SV1.2
Ssar or core / pith is the hard portion of tree composed of cells, which have
ceased to live or carry juice, and therefore those trees which have no such
core or portion composed of dead cells, are called immortal trees (Amar).
Table 1.1 - Indian Botanical
Classification
Class of trees
Nissar Antassar Bahhissa Sarvassar
Ashwath
Bilwa
Udumbar
Nyagroth
or Vat
Aamra
Nimb
Panus
Nadwat
Nariker
/Ker
Poog or
kramuk
Tāl
Bakul
Shirish
Tintini
Out of these four classes, trees having a core either on outside or inside are
suitable for engineering works. As these trees have some portion of the
section harder than other. Thus failure of softer part gives an indication that
tree is failing and sudden collapse and danger to life is avoided. Trees having
no harder portion are useless for engineering works. Trees having hard
section throughout, deteriorate simultaneously, a sudden collapse is therefore
possible. Ancient Indian texts specify that such trees should not be used for
building purposes but should be preserved for firewood. Trees with no cores
(Nissar) should be used as shade giving trees or sacrificial trees. These trees

are very altruistic and any other tree can be planted on them without any
injury to them. Thus following trees are Unsuitable for building purposes
1.2 Ancient Classification Systems of trees
The trees were classified in accordance to age, imperfections (gray shades)
and gender.
The timbers obtained from trees having age between 16 to 50 years are
considered good for construction.
To ascertain the stage of life of a tree, a bore through the stem, at 60 cm
above ground is made. This test is called formation test. The age of the tree
is indicated by,
1. color of the core,
2. hardness,
3. Juice oozing from the bore.
If a tree is already cut, instead of juice, the sound produced by tamping with
a heavy rod, will the stage of age.
B- Gray shades
 The signs such as a flag, umbrella, cone, sphere etc. found on the cut
cross-section of tree, were considered good.
 But signs such as a women, spiral, snake, headless person, partridge,
vulture etc. were considered bad indication for construction
(Vishwakarma Prakash .91.116-120)
 Timber should be free from pores.
Pores on wood it were termed as,
 Nishkut - big pores

 Kol- medium pores
 Dhushtinetra- pores circular or elliptical (like eyes)
 Vatsak- pores of irregular shapes
 Kalabandhak - pores made by insects
 Sushir- micro-pores (like those in an earthen pot)
The timber with pores is not suitable for building construction.
C- On the basis of gender
The on the basis of gender trees were classified as Male, Female, or Neutral.
Ref Mayamat & Shilparatna This type of classification is explained below.
1. Masculine-Trees have uniform cross-section from top to bottom,
strong vertically or in compression. These trees have deep roots,
fragrant flowers, and leafs smooth to touch. Masculine trees should
be used as columns
2. Feminine - Trees have broad and narrow cross-sections at bottom
and top respectively. Such trees have very fragrant flowers or
fruits, Leafs are cool when touched and rich in fluids. These are
strong laterally or in tension. Feminine trees should be used as
beams.
3. Neutral- Trees have broad and narrow cross-sections at top and
bottom respectively and have weak roots or branches
List of Masculine or feminine trees as per Mayamat, Manushyalaya Chandrika
and Yuktikalpataru is as below, SV1.3
Table 1.2 - Classification by Gender
Male Trees

Ajkarni,Dhanwan,Pishit,Shishap,Arjun,Khadir,Punnag,Simha
Ashok,Kshirni,Rajadan,Statak,Bakul,Padma,Sal,Vanhi
Chandan,Pindi,Saptak,Deodar,Pindi,Shami,
Female Trees
Aasan, Gawakshi, Likunch,Saptaparna, Bhouma,Kak,
Neem, Shirish, Ek, Katfal ,Panus,Timis, Tishrit
For pegs of tents etc, following trees, shown in Table1.6, are recommended.
Any hard wood is allowed
The timbers of masculine trees are best, feminine are of medium quality and
neuter are of least quality.
Table 1.3 -Unsuitable Trees
Bilwa ,Chinchini , Kadamb,Kovider,Kutaj ,Lodhra, Mahadrum,Nyagridh or
Vata,Palash or Kinshuk , Parijatak, Pilu, Ashwath , Plaksh Saptaparna ,
Shirish , Shlemantaka ,Udumbar
Selection of trees
A- General -As already noted above, a tree consists of hard and soft
portions. In this connection the engineer has to take following precautions.
 Bottom of the tree, which has accustomed to bear the weight of the
upper portion and being older than rest of the tree, is always stronger.
Therefore bottom portion of tree should be used as bottom of the post.

The bottom of one tree should be joined with upper portion of another
tree to increase the length.
 The bottom portion should be used as lower portion of the post. The
harder portion should be in compression and softer portion should be
in tension.
 The portion expected to weather, should be on the outside and used
for mortise. The non exposed portion should be used in tenon.
 All pegs, nails or dowels should be of harder wood. Only wooden pegs
should be used in wood work.
 The lightweight variety of wood should be used for boats, balloon and
such other things
 In carts and other works where sudden jerks have to be borne, the
stronger variety should be used.
 In joinery similar woods should be used to avoid unequal expansion or
contraction.
 Seasoned and un-seasoned, old and new wood should not be used.
 Iron nails should not be used in wood sap. Nails should not be used in
sea going boats.
 A tree grows for eight months and rests for four months which are
suitable for cutting of a tree.
 To differentiate bottom portion of tree from top portion, the wood is
allowed to float on water. The portion which sinks is bottom portion.
 In mortises the hole should be smaller than the tendon to avoid
loosing of joint by contraction of tendon during drying with age.
B - Rejection of trees: Texts such as Rajvallabha, Shilpadipak, Goubhil
Gruhyasutra, Paraskar Gruhyasutra, Sukhananda Vastu and Brihatsamhita
gives various symptoms of trees which should NOT selected for construction.
Brihat Samhita 58.54-58) specifies that following trees should not be used in
engineering works. A Tree;

 in the vicinity of religious place
 struck by lightning (The tree lose its strength after the stroke)
 scorched by fire.( Fire softens the wood)
 Grown in covered area or grown along the roadside (It gives shelter to
passengers) or grown in unhygienic conditions.
 Broken by wind or impact of animals (vehicles).
 entangled by other trees or wound by creepers
 Grown in anthills or supporting honey beehive or grown on cremation
ground or which harbors vultures or owls.
C- Selection of trees for timber- Following trees are suitable
 Strong, fat trees, and having age neither more nor less, straight,
sacred mountain, forest and timber found in remote worship places
etc.
 Having enchanting appearance those timber are better for making
poles.
 The timbers obtained from trees having inside portion white in
appearance are best and if red, yellow, black colors then they are
lesser good. Straight, strong, desired
 Not affected by rain also where there is plenty of water then, the
timber obtained from trees growing in that area are good.
 If water or milk like fluid comes out, after cutting the tree then the
timber obtained that tree is good if the fluid reasonable red in color
then the tree is worth abandoning.
Table 1.4 - Worshiped Trees - Not for construction

Aamalak,Dunduka,Patali,Abhayaksha,Kantaka,Pindi,Agaru,Kapittha,
Putrajeev,Aribhed,Karanj,Tilak,Ashwamari,Badari,Bakul,Karpur,
Karskar,Padmak,Varun
References
Mayamat 15.108-113, Shilparatna 14.81-84,
Vishnudharmottar Purana 2.29.50-52 & 3.89.7-10,
Samarangana Sutradhara 16.19020,Vishwakarma Vastushastra 4.8
Seasoning of Trees For seasoning of wood, as per Mayamat, it should be
placed on sand with bottom portion facing wind blowing from west or south
direction.
Felling the tree - Mayamat mentions that before felling a tree, its branches
should be cut first to avoid unusual strains.
The wood deteriorates due to loss of oily substance. Hence Bhrugu Samhita
specifies that the wood should be painted to avoid the losses. An oil coat
should be applied every year after rainy season. After the wood is well dried
it may stored for preservation. SV1.5
Frames and door shutters - Manushyalaya Chandrika specifies that the
frames and shutters of doors/ windows should be of same type wood so that
the action of weather may be same on both. Unequal action produces
unequal strains and it is detrimental to architecture. SV1.6
Water retarding substances- As per Agastha Samhita or Brihat Samhita,
juice of coreless trees contains water retarding substances (lakh) and hence
the juice was used in preparing gas holders made of silk cloth in ancient

India. The last coating was given with the decoction of mash. The names of
such trees are Amalaki, Aamra, Bibhitak, Gawakshi, Haritaka, Kshirdrum,
Kadamb etc.
In tempering of steel, juices of various trees were used. Particular juice for a
particular tool was specified. Use of herbal plants for tempering of steel is
not discussed here
Timber Preservation
During discussions with some Sthapati (architects specialized in ancient
Shilpa Shastra), it was gathered that Gomutra (Cow's urine) and solution of
(Haridra) turmeric powder in water, were used to protect wood from attack
of termites. All wooden parts of Sphurti Aashram (at Godhani, on Nagpur
Koradi road) were treated as per this method, fifteen years ago and it is a
standing proof of the effectiveness of the method.SV1.7
Botanical Classification: In 1735 Carolus Linnaeus, in his book "Systema
Natrrae, classified plants". But according to Sushruta Samhita (6th Century
BC) plants are called Sthawar (non-movable) and grouped under four
heading, Ref. Table 1 below.
Table 1.5- Ancient Botanical Classification
Sanskrit
Name
Exact
Meaning
Explanation
Vanaspati Lord of
Forest
Large Trees which bear fruits
without flowering
Vrukshya One that
gets cut
Trees, which bears both flowers and
fruits.

Virudha that
which
spreads
Herbs, which are stem less and
spread out (bushes)
Oushadhi Basis of
digestion
Medicinal Plants which wither away
once their fruits ripen
Five senses of perception: As per Indian knowledge system all creatures
are divided into two categories -Living and moving. Any being which has
five basic senses of perception (hearing, touching, seeing, smelling and
tasting) is termed as living. The plants are living creatures as these posses
the five senses of perception. This is described in verses 11 to 18, chapter
184, of Mahabharata (3000BC), as a dialogue between two sages Bhrugu
and Bharadwaja. The meaning of the dialogue is as under;
 Leaf, bark, fruit and flower fade due heat. Because it (the plant) fades
and decays there is sense of touch.
 By sounds of wind, fire and lightening fruit and flower decay rapidly.
Sound is received by ear. Therefore plants hear.
 A creeper surrounds a tree; from all sides it moves. Unseen, path does
not exists; therefore plants see.
 Similarly, by a variety of good or bad smells (aroma) plants blossom
disease free, hence plants smell.
 By the drinking of water with their feet (roots), by exhibitions of
disease, sense of taste exists in plants.
 From the grasping of happiness and unhappiness, from the healing of
wounds I see life. Plants have sentiments.
 The heat and light digest the water drawn by the plant; the digested
water is converted into juices necessary for the growth.

As one sips water upward through a lotus stalk (straw), plant endowed with
air, drinks with its feet.
Mayamat specifies wood of certain trees suitable for making wooden beams
(as the wood is strong in bending).
Wood, stones and bricks are used to construct pillars, beams and roofs.
Trees, whose wood is durable, are described above.
As per Mayamatam trees which are suitable for low cost housing are given
below;
Ancient Indian engineering philosophy, comprise of ten sciences, thirty-two
techniques and sixty-four skills of engineering. All these sciences are
interlinked in one way or other. Hence one can find hundreds of references
of botany related to engineering.
Many ancient texts, describes engineering applications of various
components (Panchanga) of trees, plants, and creepers.
Fig.1.1 - Five parts of trees

The Engineering applications of botany can be grouped under following
heads.
 Adobe construction- brick earths, mud plasters, pottery, mud floorings
etc.
 Tempering of steel implements
 Water purification.
 Rainfall predictions.
 Gold plating of copper and silver
 Crack detection by herbal paints.
 Adamantine Glue.
 Lime Mortars and lime plasters
 Basic colors and pigments.
 Herbal paste for water divining.
The subsequent parts of this book contain engineering applications of
ancient Indian Botany.
Sanskrit Verses
वृक्षाप्रसवारोषण क्रमादिक्रक्रया कृ षी ॥ कृ षी पाराशर
SV1.1 - Biological Sciences
अंत:साराश्च वृक्षााः पनसतरूमुखााः सववसारश्च शक्कचचंचाद्या
स्तालके रक्रमुकयबफलाद्या बद ाःसार वृक्षााः।
ननाःसारााः शशग्र्सप्तच्छ्िशुकतरवाः क्रकं शुकाद्याश्च
कायावस्तेष्वाद्या
मध्यभागे बद रपपच तताः सववसारास्ततोऽन्ये॥
मनुष्यालयचंद्रिका
स्स्नग्धसारा म ासारा वृध्िास्तरूणेतरााः ।
अवक्राननर्व्वणा सैवग्र ी॥ मयमत
SV1.2 - Indian Botanical Classification
पुरूषाः खदिराः सालो मधुकाः स्ततकस्तथा ।

शशशंपार्जवनार्कणी क्षीरणी पद्मचंिनौ ॥
पपशशतोधंवनाः पपंडी शसं ो रार्ािनाः शमी ।
पुरूषाः बकु लाः वस्न् क्षीररणीत्येकमाद्यााः ।
सुस्ध्िपवमलसारास्थुपपकोकााः प्रशसध्िाः
SÇI
inMbasnizir;aí @k> kakí kq)l>
itimsae ilku<cíEv pns> sPtp[Rk>
ÉaEma cEv gva]I ceTyady> SÇImhIéh>
mymt A 15
oidr> oaidríEv mxuk> ]Iir[I twa,
oatz<kuÐuma àae´ayeca<be sardarv>.
mymt
d<t<c c<dn< cEv oidr> kidr> zmI
zakí it<dukíEv z<ku v¨]a %idSta>
yui´kLpté
SV1.3 - Tree Classification by Gender
कमवमंडपके न्यस वालुके पररशायतेत् ।
प्रागंघ्न चात्तराग्र वा प्याशुश्कं रक्षसेत्पुनाः ॥ मयमत
SV 1.4 Seasoning of Trees
शालाश्मथवर्कणी उध्वावश्च पतनंशुभं ॥ मयमत
SV1.5- Felling the tree
एक र्ानत तरूशभाः प्रकस्पपतं व्िार
पािफलकादिकं शुभं ।

SV1.6- Frames and door shutters
द्रव्यनाशस्तु कालेन स्ने नाशात्प्रर्ायते ।
तस्मात्तैलं सिालेप्यं ेमंते शशशशरेऽयवा॥
कमवमंडपेचैव काष्ठं स्याद्रक्तरस्र्तं ।
क्रकवाग्नेिग्धतत्कु िंगारा वृत ेतुना ॥ भृगुसंद्रिता
SV1.7- Preservation of Wood
तासां स्थावराश्चतुपववधााः
वनस्पतयो वृक्षा वीरूधा औषधय इनत।
तासु अपुष्पा फलवंतो वनस्पतयाः ।
पुष्पफलवंत्याः वृक्षााः ।
प्रतानवत्याःस्तस्बबन्यश्च वीरूधााः ।
फलपाकननष्ठा औषधय इनत ॥
सुश्रुत संद ता अध्याय १ पररच्छछेि २९
SV1.8- Botanical Classification
उष्मतो बलायते पणं त्वक् फलं पुसपमेव च ।
बलायते शीयवते चापप स्पशवस्तेनात्र पवध्यते ॥११॥
वाय्वग्न्यशननननननघोषैाः फलं पुष्पं पवशीयवते ।
श्रोत्रेण गृह्यते शब्िस्तस्माच्छछृ ण्वंनत पािपााः ॥१२॥
वपली वेष्ठयते वृक्षं सववतश्चैव गच्छछनत ।

ना ह्यद्िष्टेश्च मागोऽस्स्त तस्मात् पािपााः ॥१३॥
पुण्यापुण्यैस्तथा गंधैधजपैशच पवपवधैरपप।
अरोगााः पुस्ष्पतााः सास्न्त तस्मास्जर्घ्रंनत पािपााः ॥१४॥
पािैाः सशललपानाच्छच व्याधीनां च िशवनात्।
व्याधीप्रनतक्रक्रयत्वाच्छच पवद्यते रसनं द्रुमे ॥१५॥
सुखिुाःखयोश्च ग्र णास्च्छछन्नस्य च पवरो णात्।
र्ीवं पश्चाशम वृक्षाणामचैतन्यं न पवद्यते ॥१६॥
तेनतजर्पमाित्तं र्रयस्ग्न मरूतौ ।
आ ारपररणामच्छच स्ने ो वृस्ध्िश्च र्ायते ॥१७॥
वक्त्रेणोत्पलनालेन यथोध्र्व र्लमाििेत्।
तथा पवनसंयुक्ताः पािैाः पपबनत पािपाः ॥१८॥
म ाभारत शांतीपवव अ १८४
SV1.9 - Sentiments of Plants
पुरुषाः खदिराः सालो मधुकाः स्ततकस्तथा
शशशंपार्ुवनार्कणी क्षीरणी पद्मचंिनौ ॥
पपशशतोधन्वन: पपंडी शसं ो रार्ािनाः शमी ।
नतलकश्च दृमा ह्येते स्तंभवृक्षााः समीररतााः ॥
मयमत
SV1.10- Selection of trees for wood
ननबबासनशशररषाश्च एकाः काकश्च कटफलाः

नतशमसो शलकुं च पनसाः सप्तपणवकाः
भौमा चैव गवाक्षी चेत्याियाःस्त्रीम ीरु ाः
मयमत अ १५
SV1.11-Female trees for beams
खदिराः खादिरो वस्न् ननंबाः सालाः शशलींद्रकाः पपशशताः ।
नतंिुकमथरार्ािन ोममधुकाश्च पािपािपकााः
मयमत अ २५
SV1.12-Neutral trees for fire wood
पपशशतस्स्तंिकवृक्षो ननंबो रार्ािनो मधुकश्च ।
तालंच नाररके रं क्रमुकं वेणुश्च के तकी चैव ॥
शीशलंद्राः स्तंभरूर्ा वैश्यानां चापप शजद्राणांम ॥
मयमत अ २५
SV1.13-Trees for low cost houses
तृणैस्तु मृण्मयं छाद्यशमष्टकाशभमृवण्मयं च ॥ मयमत अ २७
SV1.14-Hatched roof
**.**

2 ARCHITECTURE & CIVIL ENGINEERING
2.1 Rainfall prediction
Ancient text Kadambini mentions certain precursors of rainfall. It mentions
few precursors of rainy season.
 Flowering of certain trees can be linked to onset of rainy season. Rainy
season starts 45 days after Amaltash flowers bloom. Ref Fig. below.
 If creeper grows upwards or buds of small flowering plants decay without
flowering indicates immediate rains.
Fig.2.1 Flowering of Amaltash tree
2.2 Water Purification
1-Brihat Samhita (6th century A.D.): The chapter 54 describes surface
indicators for underground water springs. It also describes certain herbs for
water purification. Refer Table and Figure below.
2- Abhilishartha ChintamaNi (10th Century A.D.): This text mentions a
process of raw water purification. The ingredients needed are Khus,
Chandan, pippali, Nagarmotha, cardamom, and Multani Mitti for cover. All
ingredients are mixed and encapsulated in Multani Miiti dove. Peanut size

pallets are prepared and heated to 600 degrees in a furnace. See figure
below. One such palette is used for purification of 5 liters of water.
Experiments were conducted at VNIT Nagpur, to verify the information and it
was observed that;
 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) increase from 5 to 11,
 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) increase from 51 to 220 ,
 MPN decrease from 2400 to 14.
The process patented by Dr. Deopujari & Dr.Mandavgane, 2011.
The figure 2.2.2, contains the original reference verse and the table gives
the ingredients used.
Fig. 2.2-Clay palette
Table 2.1-The ingredients for water purification as per B.S.
and A.C.
Sanskrit Name and part to be used English Name
Arjun (tree fruits) Arjun tree
Mushta (bulb of plant) Cypriol plant
Ushir (roots of plant) Khus grass
Chandvel (stem) Arvensis -A small climber
Amalaki (dry powder of fruits) gooseberry frruits
Kanakphul (fruits of) Mexican prickly poppy
Chandan (paste of core) Sandal wood
Pippli (fruits) Long pepper

3-Scientific research has proved that;
 Powder of Nirmali seeds removes the turbidity of water.
 Roots of Khus plant gives pleasant smell to drinking water
 Use of Basil plant (Tulsi) or Holy tree (Bael) leaf increase shelf life potted
water.
 Core of Jamul tree wood acts as algaecide, it destroys the algae in 24 hours.
 Seeds of drumstick tree also act as coagulant for turbidity removal.
Fig.2.3- Nirmali seeds and Khus grass roots
Fig.2.4- Core of Jamul tree wood and Seeds of drumstick tree
2.3 Adobe construction
General: Soil stabilization includes soil selection, treatment with organic
additives. Such soil is used for brick earth, mud walls, plastering, and outer
coat of idols, pottery, base coat of cave paintings and other purposes.
Functions of soil plasticizers are; to increase
1. workability with optimum water content
2. water repellent property

3. strength by increasing the density
4. Impart glazing to pottery products.
Ancient plasticizers can be grouped as
A) Extracts of herbs, fruits and tree barks: Trifala- Aamla, Hirda and
Behada,Wood apple, Holy tree fruit ,Barks- Khadir4
, Arjun trees
B) Natural fibers: Cotton, coir, wool, silk cotton or jute
C) Natural polymers: Cow Dung, Jiggery, Coconut water, Eggs, Green Algae,
rice husk, burnt coconut shell.
The Sanskrit alternate name for clay is “Dharmi” which means a material
changes its properties according to the requirement. The procedures for
manufacture of different clay products are described below.
1a Bricks and Roofing tiles: Yajurvedsamhita mentions about method of
preparation bricks and a special type of pot (Ukha). The soil was stabilized
by adding hairs of goat, fine sand, iron slag and stone dust. Shatapatha
Brahman mentions use of sand, stone dust and iron slag for soil
stabilization.
Mix extracts of barks of trees (Pipal and Agar) in wet clay. Knead the clay
daily for 30 day and the use for bricks or roofing tiles. Trifala is mixed with
water .and boiled till the solution is reduced to one fourth of original volume.
It is called Trifala-Kashaya. (Ref. Shilparatna).
The suitable soil is mixed with Trifala-Kashaya. The soil is kneaded for a long
period. The soil such prepared was used for plastering of walls.
Vastu Vidya Savyakhya describes the soil preparation as below,

• Add extracts of barks of milky trees, knead for one to ten days
• Add extracts of barks of Shirish tree, knead for one to ten days
• Add decoction (Kashaya), knead for 3 to 30 days
1b-soil stabilization for idol making: Additives- milk, yogurt, ghee, stone
dust; iron slag. Decoctions made from barks of Khdir or Arjun trees.
turpentine oil, resinous exudation of Sal tree, grass of kandru plant. Ref.
Tantrasamuchhyaya and Vastu Vidya
Preparation of soil by mixing various ingredients and the process of mud
plastering for idols is described in details in Sakaladhikar.
Suitable soil (white, red or yellow) is mixed with cow’s milk and tawny color,
linseed oil, floor of wheat and barley. A decoction is prepared by boiling
barks of Kshir and bakul in water
Clay balls are prepared and allowed to dry. Further lime and gum is added to
dry pulverized clay balls are allowed to mature for one month. Lime in 1:2
pats is added and the mixer is used for coating the idols. Ref.
Aparajitprichha (1200-1300 AD)
Fig.2.5-Fruits
2-Natural fibers are;
Cotton, coir, wool, silk cotton, jute, spider’ web etc.

Fig.2.6- Natural fibers
3-Natural polymers
Cow Dung, Jiggery, Coconut water, Eggs, Green Algae, rice husk, burnt
coconut shell etc.
Fig.2.7- Natural Polymers

Fig.2.8- Hand molding of bricks
Shatapatha Brahman mentions use of sand, stone dust and iron slag for soil
stabilization.
Trifala (three fruits-Aamla, Hirda and Behda) are boiled in water till the
solution is reduced to one fourth of original volume. This decoction is called
Trifala-Kashaya. (Ref. Shilparatna).
The suitable soil is mixed with Trifala-Kashaya. The soil is kneaded for a long
period. The soil such prepared was used for plastering of walls.
Vastu Vidya describes the soil preparation as below,
• Add extracts of barks of milky trees, knead for one to ten days
• Add extracts of barks of Shirish tree, knead for one to ten days
• Add decoction (Kashaya), knead for 3 to 30 days
Case Study
13th Centaury Floating Bricks are still available at Ter and Dhoki Village on
Kurduwadi Latur Road, Maharashtra. These bricks are supposed to be
made by Saint Gora Kumbhar. The properties of these floating bricks are;
• Sizes in mm: 100 x 75 x 62.5 Min to 300 x 150 x 75.
• Weight in kg: 0.75 min to 3.15 Max.
• Density ratio (Std Brick/ Ter brick): 1.88 to 2.37
• Floating period prior to sinking in water: 4 to 40 hours .
• Probable Ingredients: Rice Husk creating partially inter-connected
pores.

Fig.2.9 -Brick Floating on Water
1b-Clay idols
Fig.2.10- Clay idols
As per ancient texts such as Tantrasamuchhyaya,Sakaladhikar and Vastu
Vidya soil is stabilized by additives like milk, yogurt, ghee , stone dust and
iron slag . Decoctions made from barks of Khadir or Arjun trees, oil, resinous
exudation of Sal tree, grass of kundru plant is added to the soil to be used
for idol making.
As per Aparajitprichha (1200-1300 AD) suitable soil (white, red or yellow) is
mixed with cow’s milk, linseed oil, floor of wheat and barley. A decoction is

prepared by boiling barks of Kshir and Bakul in water. Clay balls are
prepared and allowed to dry. Further lime and gum is added to dry
pulverized clay balls are allowed to mature for one month. Lime in 1:2 parts
is added and the mixer is used for coating the idols.
1d-Adobe floors
Fig. 2.11-Isabgol plants, seeds and mud floor prepared with Isabgol
Floors are made from poured and toweled mud mixed with psyllium hulls
(Isabgol).The mud is easy to work and acts as a binder when the floor dries.
It reduces cracking and increases strength.
2.4 Pottery
A- Earthen pots: Prepare a mixture of Swesha, Guggul and Kunda grass
(one sixteenth of clay) and curd (one eleventh of clay). Apply this mixture
to clay pot before baking in a furnace.
Mix floor of Satu, powder of Amaksh , Tatwasi and coconut water to clay in a
proportion of 8 parts of clay and 1 part of admixtures. Ref. Shilparatna
1.14.48
B- Glazing of earthen pots: Apply a mixture of Ghee, honey and Herb
powder (Kapittha, Bilwa and Niryas) to clay pots. This process imparts
glazing to the china clay pots.

Apply a mixture of milk ghee, honey and Herb powder (churni, Pipli,Marichi
and Rasani ) to clay pots. This process imparts glazing to the ceramic pots.
Ref. Shilparatna 1.14.15
C- Coloring of Clay pots: Mix sesame powder and resins of Kapittha and
Beal trees. Add desired coloring agent (Kushta, Red ochre, orpiment etc).
Polish the pot with the mixture to impart suitable color. Alternatively take
equal parts of Sandlewood, Karpur, Gorochan and Agaru . Add clay 6 parts
to the mixture in linseed oil. Apply this oil paint to earthen pots.Ref.
Shilparatna 2.19.18
1g. Ceramic pots
Prepare a mixture of Shraveshat, Guggul and Kunda grass (one eleventh of
clay) and curd . Apply this mixture to clay pot before baking in a furnace.
Ref. Shilparatna 2.19.11
A. Gadhi soils –white soil

Fig.2.12- Mud fort in Rajasthan
The main constituents are local soil, fine sand, cow dung, quick lime,
extracts of Belphal , fibers of jute and water for mixing.
The mixture is allowed to mature for a minimum period of 30 days and
kneaded every day.
2.5 Lime Mortars
Shilparatna mentions different techniques for lime mortars. Annexure 2
shows additives for lime plasters.
a-Lime Mortar
Grind ripe bananas, fibers of cotton and pulp of cactus and mix in slaked
lime to make a good quality lime mortar. Alternatively add decoction of
barks of trees (Pipal. Amla, Kadamb) and paste of black gram are added to
the slaked lime.
b-Sudha - Molding Lime for sculpturing

Lime prepared by burning conches (Shankha) or oysters (Shipi) is called
Sudha. Fine sand, decoction of moog, jiggery water and Banana powder is
added to lime.
The recommended proportions are, Lime - 4 parts, Fine sand- 2 parts,
Banana powder – 1 part and jiggery -1 part. All ingredients are mixed by
rolling again and again.
c-Sunla
Curd, milk, black gram paste, gud, ghee, ripe bananas, coconut and mango
pulp are added to slake lime. Plaster made of these materials is non-
shrinking .
d-Waterproof lime mortar
Mix Ghee, coconut water, black gram paste , extract of barks(Pipal), milk,
curd, decoction of Trifala, and Pichhit, in proportion of 3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10 and
11 parts to 100 parts of slaked lime.
E -Base coat for Cave Paintings
 Ajanta caves: Clay, cow dung, stone powder, rise husk and lime.
 Sirgirea caves: Tempered kaolin clay, rice husk, Coconut shell fibers and
lime.
 Bagh caves: Red clay, green gram, lime and jute. Mansoullas recommends
use of powder of conchs, katha, pulses, molasses, and boiled bananas.
Mix 3 parts of slaked lime and 1 part of powder of dry unripe banana. Add
water to make butter like mixture. Such leveling coat gives a marble finish
to the wall surface. Repeat the procedure and store the liquid color in an
earthen pot.
Shilparatna (Part 1 and 2) mentions different techniques for lime mortars.
Many natural polymers are mentioned in this text.

Table2.2- Natural Polymers - for Lime mortar & plasters
1 Ash
2 Bark of Neem
3 Bark of Pakar tree
4 Bee wax
5 Belgiri (aegle pulp)
6 Black gram (Udad)
7 Brick powder
8 Clay
9 Cow dung
10 Egg white
11 Flowers Silk cotton
tree
12 Green gram (Moog)
13 Guggul
14 Hemp fiber
15 Jaggery
16 Juice of Cactus
17 Mahuwa flowers
18 Milk, curd or ghee
19 Mustard cake
20 Linseed oil
21 Powder of Cattle horn
22 Resin of Sal tree
23 Rice husk
24 Saaf flower oil
b- Sudha - Molding Lime for sculpturing
Lime prepared by burning conches (Shankha) or oysters (Shipi) is called
Sudha. Fine sand, decoction of moog, jiggery water and Banana powder is
added to lime.
The recommended proportions are, Lime - 4 parts, Fine sand- 2 parts,
Banana powder – 1 part and jiggery -1 part. All ingredients are mixed by
rolling again and again. Ref.Shilparatna 1.14.68-69
Fig.2.13- conches and oysters
c-Sunla

Curd, milk, black gram paste, gud, ghee, ripe bananas, coconut and mango
pulp are added to slake lime. Plaster made of these materials is non-
shrinking . Ref.Shilparatna 1.14.70
8d-Waterproof lime mortar
Mix Ghee, coconut water, black gram paste , extract of barks(Pipal), milk,
curd, decoction of Trifala, and Pichhit, in proportion of 3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10 and
11 parts to 100 parts of slaked lime. Ref. Shilparatna 1.14.70
8f- Leveling coat of lime plaster
Mix 3 parts of slaked lime and 1 part of powder of dry raw banana. Add
water to make butter like mixture. Such leveling coat gives marble finish to
the wall surface.
Shilpdeepak" Ref. Fig. 3.6 also gives procedure to prepare lime mortars. The
steps are;
1. Take two parts of coarse sand,
2. Take two parts each of honey, ghee, banana pulp, coconut water,
black gram power mixed in water, decoction of barks of Rudrakshya
trees, Jagaery and decoction of Trifala
3. Mix the above materials to 100 parts of white powdered lime.
4. The mortar thus prepared is kneeded and pounded to prepare lime
mortar
Briquettes of soil and lime mixture should be made. After four months these
briquettes should be fired and then powdered. Such mortar is useful for
waterproof plaster for terraces. Ref. Fig. 3.7
2.6 Colors and Paints

The main purpose of colors and paints is to enhance the aesthetics of any
structure and to improve the durability. The related ancient Indian texts are,
Vishnudharmottara Purana ,Chitrasutra and Manosollas.
Basic Colors: White, yellow, red, black and blue are five basic (pure) colors.
All other composite colors are made from these colors. Ref.
Vishnudharmottar PuraN, Ch.27.
White color: White color is prepared from lime made of shells or mother of
pearls or from white clay (pottery clay-Kaolin). White color is prepared by
mixing resins of Neem or Wood Apple tree with white soil or lime. The
mixture is pulverized and dissolved in hot water. Ref. Fig.2.6.2
Fig.2.14 - Ingredients for white color
Yellow color: Yellow color is prepared from pounding yellow wood trees
(Haridra) and yellow soil (from hills or river banks) together. The mixture is
poured in clear water for two hours. The top yellow solution is stored in
earth pot till it dries. The dry powder is used for preparing yellow color.
Fig.2.15- Ingredients for yellow color

Red color: Red color is prepared from Sindur (Vermilion), Gaierik (Red
ochre), Hingul (Cinnabar) or Laksharus (Shellac) to get light, medium, dark
and very dark shades respectively. Red ochre is finely pulverized and sieved
through a muslin cloth. The powder is cleaned by mixing with water.
Vermillion is mixed in water and stirred for 12 hours. All these colors are
mixed with resin of Neem.
Fig.2.16 - Ingredients for red color
Black color: -Oil lamp is ignited in a mud pot. Inner surface of another mud
pot is smeared with powder of dry cow dung. This pot is place on the first
pot such that lamp black is coated inside the top pot. The lamp black is
cleaned with water before application.
Blue color: Blue color is prepared by drying a mixture of blue minerals or
indigo and resin of wood apple.

Fig.2.17 - Ingredients for blue color
Composite colors: Composite colors are made by mixing two or more basic
colors.
Organic Colors for Textile printing: wood of suitable color is selected
from forest. It is crushed into clean water and the mixture is filtered. The
process is repeated till desired consistency is achieved. The liquid color is
stored in an earthen pot.
Fig.2.18 - Organic Colors for Textile printing
C-Ajantha paintings
Ancient techniques mentioned in Shilparatna was successfully used for
restoration of Ajantha paintings Ref. Singh & Arbad, 2014

Fig.2.19- Restoration of cave painting
a - ingredients for the preparation of mud mortar, b - preparation of
adhesive extract, c - Preparation of soil + lime + aggregates mixture, d -
final step showing the preparation of mud mortar)
Fig.2.20- cave painting before and after restoration
Consolidation of paintings with newly prepared mud mortar
Experimental Studies
Research workers in different parts of world conducted experimental studies
on natural polymers and found positive results as claimed in ancient Indian

literature. These are summarized below. (Ref. Satishchandra 2003, ch. 12,
page 537-567).
Table 2.3-Research Details
Year Name Product Purpose Ingredients
1983- Chandra & Aavik Cement
mortar
plasticizers- Black Gram+
linseed oil
1985 Gangopaddhyay Light weight
concrete
Heat insulation - CNSL, Cinder
1986 Jain water
repellant
water proofing Belgiri, black
gram ,CNSL
1990 Singh et al Lime mortar Restoration
1990 Singh et al plasters and
mortars
Restoration Belgiri, black
gram, Jaggery
Brushes and Hide glue : Ancient texts also mention about preparation of
golden color, brushes and hide glue but it is not included here.
2.7 WATER DIVINING
2.7.1-By Surface Indicators
Varahmihir (505 C.E- 587 C.E), the famous astronomer, mathematician and
astrologer of India, compiled a treatise "Brihat Samhita". Many modern
translations and commentaries on this text are available. This text is based
on the text "Krishi Parashar" of Sage Parashar. The title of chapter 54 is
Dakargala. (Daka is short form of Udaka or water and Argal means
obstruction). This text describes how the presence of some surface
indicators can be used to predict presence of underground water both in
quality and quantity. The indicators are

 Specific trees, plants, herbs and grasses
 Hibernating animals (Enjoying winter sleep- frogs, lizards, snakes,
alligators and tortoises)
 Anthills (Terrariums)
The chapter 54 contains 124 verses. For example few verses are quoted
below;
 Verse 6: If a Rotang tree is seen flourishing in a waterless tract,
there will be water at a depth of 7.5 cubits at a distance of 3
cubits to the west of the tree.
 Verse 9: If a fish or blue soil is met at a depth of 2.5 cubits,
there will be abundant water source.
 Verse15: If there is a Nirgundi plant excessively grown near a
anthill, then there will be sweet water at a depth of 11.25 cubits.
 Verse.85: Among a group of termite mounds, a water vein is
sure to be found below the taller of the mounds.
The simple rules mentioned by sage Parashar are as below;
1. The surface water or its flow does not indicate the underground
water conditions.
2. Many ant hills in a particular area suggest of good source of
water.
3. If certain types of trees (Country Fig, Shami or Pipal) are grown
in close proximity, then good water storage at that spot can be
predicted.
4. No site is completely devoid of water, but depth of water table
changes from place to place. If a hard rock stratum is met
during the digging well, water table cannot be expected till
bottom of this stratum.

5. If a white clay or sand stratum is met, one can expect good source of
water'
There are certain ground symptoms which indicate availability of ground
water. Ref. Table 2.7.1
Table 2.4 - Ground symptoms and underground water
Type A B C
Branches Long Medium Small
Fruits Juicy Non juicy -
leaves Without holes Small -
Soil color White or bluish Black Red
Species of trees Date palm, Arjun,Guava - Teak,
Shisum
Types of grass Munj, kush - -
Water quantity Abundant Moderate Less, at
great depth
Water quality Sweet Salty Bitter
A place where five trees (Vat, Oudumber, Pipal, Shami and Bel) exist side by
side is termed as Panchwati (a place of five trees). Abundant water is
available at such site at a shallow depth. Ref. Table 5.3 for botanical names.

Fig.2.22-Panchwati (a place of five trees)
2.7.2-water divining by herbal paste
Fig.2.21- Water Diviner
Dowsing is a method to locate underground water sources. Dowsing
technique includes use of pendulums, Y rods etc, to find metals, ores,
gemstones, oils and lost articles.
Breach child: If during birth of a child, feet appear first, such child is called
Breach child. Such person possesses some magnetic powers which are

useful for water dowsing. A person born as a Breach child person possesses
some magnetic powers which are useful for water dowsing.
If such person (born as breach child) is not available, dowsing can be done
by any person with the help of herbs mentioned in ancient Indian text
Mantrashastra
An herbal paste is prepared by grinding ten types of seeds or roots in cow’s
urine. Such paste is applied to the feet of a person who wishes to do
dowsing. This paste helps in locating underground water. Ancient Indian text
“Mantrashastra” describes the constituents of this herbal paste. Ref.Table
below.
Table 2.5- Constituents of herbal paste
Sanskrit Name English/ Latin
1 Vanhi Marking nut Tree-Prosopis cineraria
2 Koshataki Wild ribbed gourd -Luffa operculata
3 Vajri / Snuhi Holy Milk Hedge-Euphorbia neriifolia Linn
4 Swetark White_variety of Madar plant
Calotropis_gigantea
5-Girikarnika/ Shankhapushpi Butterfly pea -Clitoria ternatea
6 Vacha Vacha- Calamus -root
7 Patha / Phadvel Patha creeper -False pareira brava
8 Nirgudi Nirgundi Vitex negundo
9 Katutumb Bitter Pumpkin- lagenaria siceraria
10 Nimba Lemon Citrus × lemon
11Keshar / Nagkeshar Mesua Ferrea
12 Gomutra Cow’s Urine
.

Figures below describe the ingredients.
Fig.2.22a- Ingredient of herbal Mehandi
Fig.2.22b- Ingredient of herbal Mehandi

Fig.2.22c- Ingredient of herbal Mehandi
Fig.2.22d- Ingredient of herbal Mehandi
Fig.2.22e- Ingredient of herbal Mehandi

Fig.2.22f- Ingredient of herbal Mehandi
2.8 Adamantine Glues Ashtabandha and Vajralepa
The subject of preparation of adamantine glue is closely connected with that
of construction of temples, mansions etc., because that was very essential
for fixing idols, in constructing walls and the like when cement and other
modern materials were unknown. Even now these glues known as
Ashtabandha are prepared in temple premises for fixing or re-fixing images
of Gods. Only one authority viz. Maya, is mentioned by our author
Take the unripe fruits of Tinduka and Kapittha , flowers of silk cotton, seeds
of Sallaki , bark of Dhanvana, and Vaca ; boil all of them in a Drona (256
Palas )and reduce the decoction to an eighth of its original volume (i.e. 32
Palas). Mix the sediments with the following substances, viz. Sriviisaka (a
secretion of a tree used as incense, Turpentine?), Raktabola, Guggulu
,Bhallataka, Kundurilka, resin, Atasi and Bilva fruit . The resulting paste is
termed Adamantine Glue.
When this glue, being heated, is used in the construction of temples,
mansions, windows, walls and wells as well as in fixing Siva's Emblems and

idols of Gods, it will last for ten million years. Next he gives another
composition of this glue.
A bonding agent mortar or glue was very essential for fixing idols, in wall
construction, when cement and other modern materials were unknown.
Even now these glues, known as Astabandha, are prepared in temple
premises for fixing or re-fixing images of gods. Five prescriptions for such
glues are described in Shilpashastra
Ancient Indian texts such as Brhatsamhita of Varaha-Mihira and Mayamatam
of Sage Maya describes the materials and methods of cementing material in
chapter Vajralepa.
First formula:
The ingredients are unripe fruits of Tinduka and Kapittaka, flowers of silk
cotton seeds of Sallaki, barks of Dhanavana and Vaca root. (Refer Table 1)
Table 2.6 - Ingredients for Adamantine glues
First formula mentioned in Brihat Samhita
SN Sanskrit English/ Latin
1.1 Tinduka Fruits of Diospyros paniculata
1.2 Kapittaka Feronia elephantum
1.3 Shalmali Flowers of silk cotton
1.4 Sallaki Seeds of Boswellia serrata
1.5 Dhanavana Barks of Orris root
1.6 Vacha Barks of Orris root
1.7 Shrivasaka A tree resin used as incense

1.8 Raktabola Myrrh
1.9 Guggulu Commiphora roxburghii
1.10 Bhallataka Semecarpus anacardium
1.11 Kunduruka Deodar tree resin
1.12 Atasi Linum usikatissimum
1.13 Bilvaphal Fruits of Aegle marmelos
All these ingredients (SN 1.1 to 1.6) are boiled 256 parts of water till the
decoction reduces to an eighth of its original volume (i.e.32 Parts).
The sediments are mixed with substances, such as. Shrivasaka , Raktabola,
Guggulu, Bhallataka, Kunduruka resin , Atasi and Bilva fruit.(SN 1.7 to 1.13)
The resulting paste is termed as adamantine glue. This glue is heated and
then used in construction of temple, and fixing Siva’s emblems and idols of
gods. It was expected to last for a million years. Ref. Brihatsamhita ch.56. v-
210-213
Second Variety -Adamantine Glue
Mayamatam
Ingredients-Lac, Kunduru, soot (lamp black), Guggulu, wood-apple,
Manjiostha resin, Bilva fruit kernel, fruits of Naga, neem,Tinduka , Madana ,
Madhuka, myrrh and Ambalaka.
Formula Explained in Shilparatnakar
The ingredients are unripe fruits of Tinduka (Diospyros malabarica) and
Kapittaka (Feronia elephantum), flowers of silk cotton (Morus Acedosa)

seeds of Sallaki (Boswellia serrata), barks of Dhanavana and Vaca (Orris
root).
Table gives the ingredients for adamantine glue.
Table 2.7-Terminology
Sanskrit name Botanical
name
Common
name/parts
used
Gruhdhooma - Soot
Amlaka Emblica
officinalis
Amla, anwla
(fruit)
Atasi Linum
usikatissimum
Linseed oil
Bhallataka Semecarpus
anacardium
Marking ink
tree
Bilva Aegle
marmeJos
Holy tree fruit
Dhanvana Dhawda Tree
Drona A leaf cone
Guggulu Commiflora
mukul
Guggul
(resin)
Kapittha tree Feronia
elephantum
Wood apple
Kundurilka exudation of
Deodar
Laksha Lakh, lac
(resin)
Madanfal Randia
spinosa
Madan fala
(fruit)
Madhuka Cynometra
ramiflora
Mahua, Moha
(fruit)
Manjistha Rubia
cordifolia
Manjistha
(stem)
Nagfala Canthium
parviflorum
Bagbala (bark
of the shrub)

Neemba Azadirachta
indica
Neem
(leaves)
Rasa Raktabol,
Hirabol
(resin)
Sallaki Boswellia
serrata
tree
Sarjarasa
Shalmali Morus
acedosa
silk cotton
tree
Sriviisaka a tree-resin
Tinduka Diospyros
paniculata
Tendu tree
fruit
Vaca Orris root Aris root
One of the disciplines in Brhatsamhita is adamantine glue called Vajralepa.
Brhatsamhita describes several preparations of Vajralepa, which means
coatings as strong as thunder bolt. The subject of preparation of adamantine
glue is closely connected with that of construction of temples, mansions, etc.
as it was very essential for fixing idols, and in constructing walls when
cement and other modern materials were unknown. Even now, the glue
known as Astabandha is prepared in temple premises for fixing images of
God. The ancient scripture on engineering and technology refers three main
formulations of adamantine glue, i.e. using metals and alloys, animal
matters and herbal.
There is another adamantine glue of excellent qualities already mentioned
which is also used for the same purpose. It is composed of lac, Kunduru,
Guggulu, soot (collected in the house), wood-apple , Bilva Kernel, fruits of
Naga Neem, Tinduka and Madana, Madhuka , Manjistha, resin, myrrh and
Amalaka.
[There is another reading Nagabalatinduk in the place Nagaphalnimb. The
method of preparation is the same as before
third variety of glue Hide Glue

A hide glue (Sirus or Shirus) is prepared from fresh skin of a buffalo cooked
in water till it becomes soft as butter. Water is allowed to evaporate. The
material is cut into small pieces are dried in sunlight. When needed the dried
piece is boiled in water. This is a substitute for resins of tree. This glue is
called Vajralep.
Adamantine glue using animal matter:
This type of glue is called as Vajratala (Adamantine Surface), which is
constituted by horns of cows, buffaloes and goats, hair of donkeys, buffalo-
hide, cowhide, Neem fruits, apples and myrrh. This mixture is boiled and
reduced to eighth of its original volume.
Fig.2.23- Hide Glue (Sirus)
Forth Variety of Adamantine glue using metal by Maya (mentioned in Brihat
Samhita).
The cement, Vajra-sanghata is to be compounded of 8 parts of lead, 2 parts
of bell metal and 1 part of brass, melted and poured hot. It is stated that
when this type of cement is applied to temple, etc. they last for around
thousand years. Vajra-sanghata means, composition as hard as thunderbolt.
According to Sage Utpala this compound may includes other materials as
well, but they are to be used in equal quantities.

Fifth Kerala Variety Astabandha (Compound of eight materials)
Preparing the mixture is a 41-day long procedure and the ingredients are;
1. Finely powdered conch,
2. gall-nut (Mayphal)
3. sealing wax ,
4. Fruits of gooseberry
5. Resin of pinus damar,
6. Cotton fibers
7. Medium sizes gravels #
8. Small sizes gravels #
# From the river Bharatapuzha in Kerala, India
The mixture is hammered by four or five men alternatively. During this
process one turns it with an iron spatula. For hammering, only wooden
hammers made of tamarind wood are used. The weight of the hammer
would be 8 to 10 kilos. The lump is very soft and malleable. It becomes hot
during the hammering and becomes hard like stone when the hammering is
stopped. An estimated 0.1 million hits of hammering are needed for a
kilogram of adhesive.
2.9 Stone Softening or crack detection Herbal paints
Microscopic defects in stones, which were invisible to eyes, were detected
by applying some herbal paints so that the defects were clearly visible.
Herbal paints for stone softening
• Mix powder Atis root, Hiracus and red ochre in milk. Apply this paint to
the stone and keep it overnight. OR
• Grind Jatamasi,Koshta, Gayaratri Hirkus and chor in milk add coconut
water. Apply the solution to the stone. OR

• Grind and mix Jatamasi,Rog and Aswamari in rain water. Apply the
solution to the stone. Ref. Shilparatna Ch.14 and Varahsamhita.
• Dowsing is a method to locate underground water sources. This technique
includes use of pendulums, Y shaped tree branch.
CASE STUDIES
B. Brick temple at Sirpur M.P.
(7th century A.D.)
Fig.2.24 – Laxman Temple Sirpur
This temple is among the best examples of brick temples of ancient India.
B. Mud flooring.

Fig.2.25 – The flooring of palace
The floors of Padmanabhapurum palace (1601 A.D) in Kerala were made of
a material that is unique blend of burnt coconut shells, quick lime, palm
toddy, the whites of eggs and extracts of certain herbs.
Sanskrit Verses
अर्ुवनोमुस्तोशीरैाः सरार्कोशामककचजणै ॥
कनकफलसमायुक्तैयोग्गाः कज पे
प्रिातव्याः॥१२१॥
वरािसंद्रिता अ५४
SV2.1-Treatment of Well water
कणामुस्तकसंयुक्तमेलोशीरकचंिनाः ।
मदिवतं मृपत्तकापोण्डं खदिरांगारपचचतम्॥१८००॥
ननक्षक्षपेस्न्नमवले तोये सवविोपरे शुभे ।
कचथताः पपण्डवासोऽपं सशललपु पवचक्षणै ॥१८०१॥
अभभलषषतार्थ चचंतामणी
SV2.2-Purification of drinking water

तताःक्षीरागरैरीषत्वकक्क्कथत्रत्रफलांबुशभाः ।
मिवयेन्मासमात्रंतु तत्कमवकु शलैनरैाः॥
वयगोत्राममाक्षंच तत्वसीचजणवसंक्षितं।
वास्तुपवद्या १९-६ , भशल्परत्न १-१४-४८
SV2.3-Bricks and Roofing tiles
कापावस्तंतवश्चापपसुक्ष्मं कृ त्वा सुपेषयेद्।
त्रत्रयबंकपकशभन्नतु किलीशभस्तिधववद्।
क्षीरदृममलाक्षणा किंबाभययोरपप ।
त्वग्र्लैस्स्त्रफलातोयं माषर्ुषं च तत्समं ॥२॥
SV2.4-Clay Mortar
मृिेष्टांशंसमायोजय नाररके रफ़लोिकै ाः ॥२॥
श्रवेष्टंगुग्गलंचैव कुं िुरुष्कं तथैवच।
शशपपरत्न २-१९-१२
SV2.5-Earthen pots
मधुक्षीरघृतेनैवं मृिपात्रेण योर्येद्॥
कपपत्थत्रबपवं ननयावसं चजणौ व्िौ समभाचगनौ ॥१६॥
शशपपरत्न २-१९
SV2.6-Glazing of earthen pots
मृिे पंचिशांशेवा नतलचजणं समंपवत ॥
मिवयेत्क्रमसाबयाकव कु ष्ठगेररकतालकं ॥
चंिनागरुकपजवर गोषुगोरोचनंसमं ॥
सुण्मचजणंतुकव्यं गोषुगोरोचनंसमं ॥

अतसीस्ने संयुक्तं मद्वयेद्िेशशकोत्तमाः ॥
शशपपरत्न २-१९-१८
SV2.7-Coloring of Clay pots
तथासर्वरसाचजणं मृत्कलाशं शशवांशकं ।
पात्रे मृिासमायोजयं िचधना मिवयेतसुधीाः ॥३॥
चजणीचशमष्पली मरीची रसनी तथा ॥
शशपपरत्न २-१९-१३
SV2.8-Ceramic pots
िचध िुग्धं माषर्जषं गुडाजय किली फलै ।
नाररके राम्र फलयोर्लैश्चैतत्प्रकपपयेत ॥३॥
आजयं च किलीपंकनाररके रांबुमाषयुक ।
शशपपरत्न १-१४-६०
SV2.9-Sunla or Lime Putty
कालास्ग्न पक्व किलीफल पपष्टंतु योर्येत्॥
तपपष्टस्य प्रमाणं द सुधा वेिां शकं स्मृतं ।
नवननतशमवयानत यावत्तावत्सुपेषमेत्॥
SV2.10-Leveling coat of lime plaster
क्षीरांगंत्वक्कषामं च क्षीर िचध ततो गुडं ।
पपस्च्छछलंत्रत्रफलांभश्च त्र्यंशादिकशमिं क्रमात्॥४॥
SV2.11-Waterproof lime mortar
संग्राह्य शकव रासुक्ष्मा तस्यााः प्रक्षालनंकु रु।

नतलािकसमंपपंड सुक्ष्मचुरणानतथैवच ॥
कापावसतंतुवश्चापप मृिंकृ त्वासुपेषयेत्।
त्रत्रयंबकपकशभन्नंच किलीशभस्तिधववत्॥
नवनीतशमवायनत यावत्तवस्सुपषेयेत्।
भृगुसंद ता अ ४८
िचधिुग्धं माषर्ुषं गुडाजय किली फलै।
नाररके राम्र फलयोर्लैश्चतत्प्रकपपयेद्।
आजयं च किलीपंकनाररके रांबुमाषयुकाः ॥
िुग्ध्वाशंखादिकं काष्ठैरचजर्णवतंद सुधाभवेत्।
सुधाचजणवचतुथंश मुग्द्क्वाथलवैाः स ॥
गुलतोयेनसंशसचेत् तच्छचजणववलुकांपवतं
गुलतोयत्रमाणंद सुधातुयंशशमानताः॥
िोव्याक्षक्षप्त्वाचसंमधव चचत्रकमावर्णयोर्येत्।
SV2.12-Materials for Lime Plasters
चतुस्स्त्रव्ियमासांते मुदटका युस्क्तननशमवता ।
श्रेष्टमध्योत्तमािेया सुधा सौधदिंबचधनी ॥
शशपपरत्न अ १४
SV2.13-Lime mortar for terrace
शसतवणव पीतवणव रक्तवणंच कजर्लं।
एतानन शुध्िवणावनन नीलवणावनतथैनच॥
पवष्णुधमोत्तर पुराण अ २७

SV2.14-Basic four colors
शंखशंक्त्यादिकं वाथुशसतमृिधवलेभवेत्।
कपपत्थाशलंबननयावस तोमैरालोड्यबुस्ध्िमान्॥
पपष्ठवापजनाःपजनाः सन्मग्मुसलनउलखले ।
तास्त्पसष्तमुष्णतोयेनसन्मगा लोड्यगालयेत्॥
SV2.15-White color
अथिारूनपीतवणावन् ररनद्यादिसंभवान्।
आिायशुध्ितायेन सक्षापयािैपवचजणवयेत्॥
मंि क्रकं चचतशशलापृष्टे षनयत्वापवलोड्यच।
शुध्ितोयैमवद्िोपात्रे मु ुतव प्रनतपालयेत्॥
तिजध्र्वशसारतोय मधाःपंकस्क्वस्र्वतं।
पात्रांतरेपवननक्षक्षप्य पुनाःकु याविमुंपवचध॥
एवं पुनाःपुनाः कृ त्वा वास्न्नमवलताभवेत्।
तत्सारंनवमृभिांडे मंिमाशलन्य शोषयेत्॥
SV2.16-Yellow color
मृिुरक्तंतुशसंिजरं गैररकं मध्यरक्तके ।
अनतरक्तेतुद ंगुलं क्रकं वालाक्षारसंबुधैाः॥
गैरक्रककं तुशशलापृष्ठे दिनयेकं सुपेषयेत्।
तत्कोपषतंशुध्ितोयैाः संग्र ेन्मुग्िरादिषु ॥
दिनाधवपेषयेतब्ि स्त्संिजरतुमनाःशशलं।
ननमवलंपेषयेच्छचेवपेषण्य ॥

एतेषांननंबननयावसतोयंसंयोजय युस्क्तताः।
समधवलेपेनक्रक्रयाद्रव्येषुचप्रयोर्येत्॥
SV2.17- Red color
अथतैलसमाशसच्छय वधवमानेच्छछवनतवकां।
पवन्यस्यप्रजवले द्िीपं धटमािायमृण्मयं॥
शुष्कगोमयचजणेन समृजर्ोिरमस्यच ।
तद्िीपोपररिीपस्य संमुखंपवन्यसेत्पुनाः ॥
तत्रिीपाशशखोद्भतं कजर्लंतध्िटेिजरे ।
आलग्नंसबयगािाय मृद्घटािौपवलेपयेत्॥
मिवयेस्ग्नर् स्तेन भुयेिजंय्पुवनस्तथा ।
शुध्िांबुशमश्रंसमधव ब ुिााः योषयेत्पुनाः ॥
SV2.18- Black color
श्यामधातजनयवमात्रं शुध्ितोयेनपेषयेत्
पुनाःकपपत्थननयाव तोयैाःसमधवयेत्॥
SV2.19 - Blue color
अन्योन्ययोगात् संज्रात वण्भेिोऽयकथते ।
शसतंरक्तेनसंयुक्त गौरच्छचापवद दृशते ॥१॥
श्वेतं कृ ष्णंचपीतंच समभागपवशभचश्रतं ।
शास्त्रच्छचवीनतपवख्यातं वणवकारसुखप्रिं ॥२॥
श्वेतंकृ ष्णंसमंशमश्रं गर्वणवमुिा तं ।
श्वेतस्यस्व्िगुणं पीतं शमश्रंख्यातंतुपपंगलं ।
कृ ष्णस्य द्पवगुणंपीते शमचश्रतंत्वबुसंशमतं ॥५॥
तिेतृणावणवाःस्यात् कृ ष्णंपीतंसमतुयत्।
ररतालं नीलयुतं शुकपक्षाननभंभवेत्॥६॥
लाक्षारसेन संयुक्तं द ंगुलंत्वनतरक्तकं ।

रक्तं पीतं समंशमश्रं बकु लस्यकालाकृ नत॥३॥
पीतस्यस्व्िगुणंरक्तं शमचश्रतंत्वनत रक्तकं ।
जवलनाभशमिंख्यातं अस्ग्नवणवननभंपरं ॥४॥
लाक्षारसेन संशमश्रं कृ श्णाबकु लाकृ नत ॥७॥
कृ ष्णनीलेन सशमश्रं के शवरणवमुिा तं ।
एवंशमश्रकवणावनन युक्तासंयोजयसंशलखत्॥८॥
SV2.20-Composite colors
अथ िारुन् इष्ट वणावन् चगररनद्यादि संभवान् ।
आिाय शुध्ितोयेन संक्षापयािौ पवचजणवयेद्॥
शुध्ितोयेन म ापात्रे मु ुतव प्रनतपालयेद् ।
पात्रांतरे पवननक्षक्षप्य पुनाः कु याविमुंपवचधं ॥
तत्सार नव मृद्भांडे मंि माशलप्य शोधयेद्।
SV2.21-Natural Colors
लाक्षारसं र्ानत शलंग शसतवणंच ॥२॥
न्यघ्रोधोंिुबर वट पपप्पल त्रबपव िेविारु वृक्षाणां ।
क्वाथस्तैल समेताः काष्ठ पीठ शयनेषु ॥
SV2.22a- Varnish
वस्न् कोषातकी श्वेताकव चगररकर्णवका ।
वचापाठाचननगुंडी कटुतुंब्याश्वमुलकं ।
ननंबके शबीर्ानन गौमुत्रैाः पेषयेतशनैाः ।
अनेन पािलेपेन पश्येत भजशमगतं र्लं ॥
मंत्रशास्त्र
SV2.22-Ingredients of herbal foot paint

प्रासाि म्र्यवलभीशलंगप्रनतमासु कु ड्यकु पेषु।
सबतप्तो ितव्या वषवस त्राययुतस्थायो ॥४॥
बृ तसंद ता अ ५६
SV2.23-Uses of adamantine glues
आमं नतंिुकमांस कपपत्थकं पुष्पमपप च शापमपयााः ।
बीर्ानन शपककीनां धन्वनवपको वचा चेनत ॥२१०॥
एतैाः सशलला द्रोणाः क्वाथनयतव्योऽष्टभागशेषश्च।
अवतायोऽस्य च कपको द्रव्यैरेतैाः समनुयोजयाः॥२११॥
श्रीवसकरसगुग्गुलुभपलातककुं िरूकसर्वरसैाः ।
अतसीत्रबपवैश्च युताः कपकोऽयं वज्रके पाख्याः ॥२१२॥
प्रासाि म्र्यवलभीशलंगप्रनतमासु कु ड्यकज पेशु ।
संतप्तो िातव्यो वषवस स्त्राय तस्यायु ॥२१३॥
SV2.24-Brihat Samhita formula
लाक्षागुलमधजस्च्छछष्ट गुग्गुलजनां समांशकााः ॥६४॥
एतेषां द्पवगुण भागं ग्राह्यं सर्वरस तिा ।
गैररकचजणवकं तस्मािधंतु घनचजणवकम्॥६५॥
सवेषामधंतस्तैलं ननक्षक्षपेपलो भार्ने।
लो द्रव्या चं कु यावत पाचयेन्मृिुवद ना ॥६६॥
अष्टबंधशमनत प्रोक्तबश्मवद् दृडबंधनम्।
मयमत अ ६४

SV2.25-Mayamat formula
लाक्षकुं िुरू गुग्गुलुगृ धुमकपपत्थत्रबपवमध्यानन ।
नागफलननबबनतंिुकमिंफलमधुकमंस्र्ष्ठााः ॥५॥
सर्वरसामलकाननचेनत कपकाः कृ तो स्व्ितीयोऽयम्।
वज्राड्याः प्रथमगुणैरयमपप तेष्वेव कायेषु॥६॥
SV2.26- Brihat Samhita formula
गोमद षाणैाः खररोबणा मद षचमवगव्येश्व ।
ननंबकपपत्थरसै: स वज्रतलोनाम कपकोऽन्याः ॥७॥
SV2.27-Hide glue
अष्टौ सीसकभागा: कांसस्य्व्िौ तुरीनतका भागाः ।
मयकचथतो योगोऽयं पविेयो वज्रसंघाताः ॥८॥
SV2.28- Vajrasanghata
संगृह्याष्ठौ सीसभागात् व्िौ तथाशकं म।
रीनतकायास्तु संतप्तो वज्राख्याः पररकीनतवताः ॥
SV2.29-Utpala’s formula

तुपयांशक्षीरपपष्टैस्तु पवसकासीसगैररकै ाः।
दृषिाशलप्य ननाःशेषमेकरात्रोपषतं भवेत्॥१-१४-२२॥
कासीतचोरौगोक्षीरे पपष्टवाचालेपयेत शशला ।
मांसीकु ष्टगयारात्रत्रं त्रत्रफलावाररिांबुशभाः ॥१-१४-३४॥
मासीरोग वाररयािर्लैाः साधवपलनांत्रयं ।
पपष्टवामपवलोचनास्तनभुवा क्षीरेण तां लेपतेद्॥१-१४-
३५॥
शशपपरत्न भाग १ अ १४
SV2.30-Stone softening
***.***

3 MISCELLANEOUS
3.1 Mining -Breaking of stone blocks: The steps involved are;
1-Heating: The stone block is heated by make a pyre of wooden logs of
Palash or Tinduk trees. The heating is continued till the color of wooden logs
becomes bright red or orange.
2-Cooling: The fire is moved to adjacent area of rock surface. The preheated
surface is cooled down quickly by pouring certain types of liquids listed
below.
 Solution of quick lime in cold water
 Solution prepared by mixing buttermilk with rice paste, ripe berries.
 Solution prepared by boiling Neem leaves and some tree barks.
Ref. Brihat Samhita
3.2-Detection of Defects In Rocks
Microscopic defects in stones, which were invisible to eyes, were detected
by applying some herbal paints so that the defects were clearly visible. Ref.
Shilparatna 1.14.33-36 . Ref. Fig .x and Picture below.
• Mix powder atis root 1, Hiracus 2 and red ochre 3 in milk. Apply this
paint to the stone and keep it overnight. OR
• Grind Jatamasi 4,Koshta, Gayaratri Hirkus and chor in milk add
coconut water. Apply the solution to the stone. OR
• Grind and mix Jatamasi,Rog and Aswamari 5 in rain water. Apply the
solution to the stone.

Fig.3.1a- Ingredients of herbal paint
Fig.3.1b- Ingredients of herbal paint
3.3- Wood Varnish: Extract of barks of milky trees (Vat,Pipal,Umber, Beal
and cedar trees) is mixed in water. Mixture is boiled. sealing wax, Jatuling,
oil and Hingul is added. Such varnish is applied to wood for polishing and
preservation. Ref. Shilparatna 1.14
Fig.3.2- Wood varnish
3.4- Preservation of Ropes:Soak the freshly woven rope in coconut oil
mixed with ripe bananas and hide glue.
Fig.3.3-Preservation of ropes

Home Remedies
1-Hot decoction of Trifala is substitute of Drainex, to clean the chocked drain
water pipes.
2. Double boiled linseed oil prevents rusting of iron, can substitute under
coat for automobiles.
3. Double boiled linseed oil protects wooden doors and windows from white
ants. Second coat (oil paint) to be applied after one year.
तुपयांशक्षीपपवष्टैस्तुपवसकासीसगैररकै ाः ॥
दृषिाशलप्य ननाःशेषमेकरात्रोपषतं भवेत्।
कासीतचोरौगोक्षीरे पपष्टवाचालेपयेतशशला ।
मांसीकु ष्टगयारात्रत्रं त्रत्रफलावाररिांबुशभाः ॥३॥
मासीरोग वाररयाररिर्लैाःसाधवपलानांत्रयं ।
पपष््वावामपवपप्चनास्तनभुवा क्षीरेणतं लेपतेद्॥४॥
भशल्परत्न अ १४
SV3.1 – Detection of cracks in stone
..लाक्षारसं र्ानत शलंगं शसतववं च द गुिं॥२॥
न्यघ्रोधोंिुबर वट पपप्पल त्रबपव िेविारू वृक्षाणां ।
क्वाथस्तैल समेताः काष्ठ पीठ शयनेषु ॥
SV3.2- Varnish for wood
नाररके लफलै तैल चमवसार गृ ीत्वातु सारािन्यास्त्रवा ता ॥
नाड्याःस्वद संकपय पश्चिावृता नाडडका । भशल्परत्न २-१८-१२
SV3.3 -Preservation of Ropes
***.***

4- Mining & Metallurgy
4.1 Gold or Silver plating
An ancient text on botany mentions that “if juice of Palash flowers (Flame of
forest), treated with sulfur, is rubbed on copper surface, the surface shines
as gold”. Similarly, decoction of mixture of flowers juice and Hartal
(Orpiment) is used to make silver like lead metal. Ref. “Vanaushadhi
GunAdarsh” by Pade
Fig.4.1-Palash and Hartal
4.2 Lost-wax casting technique for metal casting
Dhokra also spelt Dokra) is non–ferrous metal casting using the lost-wax
casting technique. This sort of metal casting has been used in India for over
4,000 years and is still used. One of the earliest known lost wax artefacts is
the dancing girl of Mohenjo-daro. The tribal people of Bastar still use this
technique.

Fig.4.2- Metal statue
The steps in this technique are;
 The first task in the lost wax hollow casting process consists of developing a
clay core which is roughly the shape of the final cast image.
 Next, the clay core is covered by a layer of wax composed of pure bee’s wax,
resin from the tree Damara orientalis, and nut oil.
 The first layer, the closest to the wax sculpture, is the river bed soil, water
and coal powder applied with brush.
 The wax is then shaped and carved in all its finer details of design and
decorations.
 A paste of red soil with rice husk is applied to first dry solidified layer.This is
applied with hands. It is then covered with layers of clay, which takes the
negative form of the wax on the inside, thus becoming a mould for the metal
that will be poured inside it.
 A final coating of rice husk, sand and clay is applied to the entire surface of
the piece.
 Drain ducts are left for the wax, which melts away when the clay is cooked.
The wax is then replaced by the molten metal, often using brass scrap as
basic raw material.
 The liquid metal poured in hardens between the core and the inner surface of
the mould.
 The metal fills the mould and takes the same shape as the wax. The outer
layer of clay is then chipped off and the metal icon is polished and finished as
desired.
Fig.4.3- Ingredients for metal casting

4.3 Tempering or hardening of tools
The steps involved are;
Ref. Brihat Samhita Ref. Brihatsamhita ,ch.53. V 116-117
1. Heating the tool in fire until it becomes red hot.
2. Application of paste* of certain materials and / or dipping the red-hot
tool in a specific solution**.
3. Sharpening the tools.
*Paste is made of excreta of pigeon and rat, powder of horns of a buffalo,
milk extract of a plant (Mandar)
** Solution is mixture of buttermilk and ash of banana plant.
Sanskrit Verses
आकव पयो ुडु पवषाणमशीसमवेत्।
पारवताखुशकृ ता च युतं पलेपाः ॥
टंकस्य तैलमचथतस्य ततोऽस्य पानम्।
पश्चात् शशतस्य शशलासु भवेद् पवधाताः ॥११६॥
बृितसंद्रिता अ ५४
क्षारे किपया मचथतेन युक्ते दिनोपषते पानयतमायसं यत्।
सबयस्क्शतं नाश्मनन चैनत भंगं न चान्यलो ेष्वपपतस्य
कौठयम्॥
बृ तसंद ता अ ५९
SV4.1 -Tempering of tools
**.**

5-AERONAUTICS
5.1 Air balloons
A- Waterproof cloth for air balloons: The juice of certain coreless trees
contains water retarding substances. The procedure for making a cloth
water/air proof is described in Agastya Samhita .Ref. SV5.1 and SV5.2 The
steps involved are;
 Apply three coats of decoction of barks of milky trees (Umber, Kadamb,
Mango, Hirda and Behda) to the cloth.
 Then apply three coats of black gram paste Soak the cloth in solution of
sugar and powders sea shells.
 Allow the cloth to dry to make it water tight.
B-Light weight wood: For seats of air balloons extracts of few trees are
specified in Agastsamhita.
Fig.5.1 Palash tree
Sanskrit Verses
क्षीरद्रुमकिंबाम्रा गवाक्षत्वगक्षैरपप ।
त्रत्रफलांबुक्षक्षराशसतक्तं आपयुषैस्त्तस्तताः कौषेकं
र्लबंधकं ॥
अगत्यसंद्रिता
SV5.1 - Waterproof cloth
पलाशोरर्काः पीडचंिनाः सुखा उच्छचते ।
बकु लस्तुशुभाः प्रोक्त पनस्तारकाः स्मृताः
अगत्यसंद्रिता
SV5.2-Light weight wood
***.***

6-EPILOGUE
It can be concluded that;
• Ancient Indian engineers had adequate knowledge of Indian botany
and knew how to implement this knowledge for strength, durability
and aesthetic purposes.
• With the advent of modern materials, organic materials were replaced
by synthetic materials.
• However secret of endurance of Indian heritage structures lies in
building materials and the construction techniques.
**.**

7 REFERENCES
A-Ancient References
• Aparajitprichha- (12th to 13th Century A.D.), Bhuvanadev Acharya,
Ed.P.A.Makkad,Gaikwad Oriental Series No. 65,(1950)
• Brihatitasamhita (Varahsamhita),Pub. Khemraj Shrikrishnadas,
Mumbai (1945) and many others
• Kadambini (1999),Ed. And Pub. By P.S.Oza,Jaipur,
• Manasollas of King Someshwara,Ed. By Shirgondekar, G.K.,Pub.
Central Library, Vadodara, 1925.
• Mayamat,Ed.T.Ganapati Shastri, Pub. By Saraswati Mahal Library
Series No.113, Thajavur,(1968).
• Pade S.D. (1973), “Vanoushadhi Gunadarsh “ ,Pub. Gajanan Book
depot, Mumbai
• Rig Veda (3000-5000 B.C)
• Sakaladhikar, - by Sage Agasta Sakaladhikara – Ed by V.G. Iyangar,
Pub. By Saraswati Mahal Library, TSM Series No. 141 (1973),
Thajavur.
• Shatapath Bramhan (1400 A.D.),Ed.G.P.Upadhyaya, Pub. Oriental
Science research Institute, New Delhi.
• Shilpratna by Shrikumar, Ed. T.Ganapati Shastri,Pub.Anantshayan
Sanskrit Granthmala,No.75,(1929).
• Shukla-Yajurveda Samhita- - Hindi Edition, Ed. Pandit Jwalprasad
Mishra, Pub. By Khemraj Srikrushadas, New Delhi
• Shilpratna by Shrikumar, Ed. T.Ganapati Shastri,Gaikwad, Oriental
• Tantrasamuchhyaya-(1428 A.D.) of Narayan Nambudripad,Ed.
T.Ganapati Shastri,Pub. Ananta shayana Sanskruit Series No.
151(1919), Mysore.
• Vastuvidya Savyakhya,Ed. K.Mahadevshastri,Pub. Triverdram Sanskrit
Series No. 142,(1977),Tiruanantpuram.

• Vishnu-dharmottara Pooran of Ved Vyas, Ed.Madhusadna Sharma,Pub.
Khemraj krushnadas Mumbai(1911)
• Yajurved Samhita (B.C.2500),Pub. Khemraj Shrikrishnadas, Mumbai
(1945).
B-Modern References
 Atalkar P S et el (2006), “Preparation and testing of herbal adamantine
glue as described in Brhatsamhita”, Indian Journal of Traditional
Knowledge,Vol. 5(2), April 2006, pp. 259-262
 Nene, A.S. (2009),” Geotechnical engineering of ancient India”, Pub.
Pune Vidyarthi Gruha, Pune.
 Satish Chandra(2003),”Ancient Building Materials in India”, Tech
Books International, N.Delhi.
 Singh, M and, Arbad, B.R.(2014),” Ancient Indian painting
recipes and mural art technique at Ajanta”, International journal
of conservation science, volume 5, issue 1, January-march 2014:
35-
 Vaze, K.V. (1924), “Prachin Hindi Shilpasar” (Essence of ancient Indian
Engineering Philosophy) ,a Marathi Book, Pub. ,Varada Publications
Pune.
 Vaze, K.V. (1963),”Prachin Hindi Shilpashastrasar” Pub. Varda
Publishers, Pune.
***.***

8-ANNEXURE
Annexure-1 Terms related to adamantine glues
Sn Sanskrit English/ Latin
1 Tinduka Fruits of Diospyros paniculata
2 Kapittaka Feronia elephantum
3 Shalmali Flowers of silk cotton
4 Sallaki Seeds of Boswellia serrata
5 Dhanavana Barks of Orris root
6 Vacha Barks of Orris root
7 Shrivasaka A tree resin used as incense
8 Raktabola Myrrh
9 Guggulu Commiphora roxburghii
10 Bhallataka Semecarpus anacardium
11 Kunduruka Deodar tree resin
12 Atasi Linum usikatissimum
13 Bilvaphal Fruits of Aegle marmelos
Annexure 2-Organic Ingredient for Lime mortar & plasters
1 Ash 9 Cow dung 17 Mahuwa flowers
2 Bark of Neem 10 Egg white 18 Milk, curd or ghee
3 Bark of Pakar tree 11 Flowers Silk
cotton tree
19 Mustard cake
4 Bee wax 12 Green gram
(Moog)
20 oil
5 Belgiri (aegle'pulp) 13 Guggul 21 Powder of Cattle
horn
6 Black gram(Udad ) 14 Hemp fiber 22 Resin of Sal tree
7 Brick powder 15 Jaggery 23 Rice husk
8 Clay 16 Juice of Cactus 24 Saaf flower oil
Annexure 3

List of Indian Trees mentioned in ancient texts
SN Sanskrit English Latin
1 Aamalaki Aamla Embelic myrobalan.
2 Aamra Mango tree Mangiferra indica
3 Aasan Unknown Unknown
4 Aasav or Arwak Asava tree Asava Bridalia indica
5 Ajkarni Pagoda tree Tabernaemontana
6 Aksha Cork Oak Tree Eleiocarpus calamus
7 Amratak
Hog plum, Wild
plum Spondias Magnifera
8 Anjan Aljana Hardwickia binata
9 Ankol Ankol tree Alangium Lamarki
10 Arishta Soapnut Sapindus trifoliatus
11 Arjun Arjun tree Terminalia arjuna
12 Arka or rui Mandar Calotropis procera.
13 Ashmantak arboria Gmelina arboria
14 Ashok Ashoka tree Saraca indica
15
Ashwatha or
Pipal Pipal Ficus relegoa
16 Badarika Jujube Zizyphus jujuba.
17 Bala Munj grass Munj grass
18 Bhallatak
Marking Ink
tree Semecarpus anacardium.
19 Bhardi
Bhangraya
Bhargi Unknown
20 Bhoum Jamoon tree Eugenia jambolana.
21 Bhouma Jumbba Java Plum Syzygium Cumini
22
Bibhitak or
Wanhi Behda Terminalia bellerica.
23 Bilva Holy fruit tree Aegle marmelos
24 Chaityadrum Colotropia Gigantis
25 Champak
Temple/Pagoda
tree Plumeria ru bra
26 Chandan
Sandalwood
tree Santalum album.
27 Chatra Unknown Unknown
28 Chatri Umbrella tree Poinciana regia.
29 Chinchini Tamarind Tamarindus indica
30 Dadim Pomegranate. Punica granatum
31 Devnal Unknown Unknown
32 Devnal Unknown Unknown
33
Dhanwai or
Akshit Walnut tree Alcuritea moluocana
94
Dhanwi or
Akshit Walnut tree Alcuritea moluocana
34 Dhava Arjun Dhavda Arjun Dhavda

35 Dhawa Arjun Dhavda Arjun Dhavda
36 Drumagulma Unknown Unknown
37 Durwa Grass Cynodon dactylon
38 Ebha /HastikarNi Unknown Unknown
39 Garudvega
Heart leaved
creeper Tinospaora Cordifolia
40 Gawakshi Behada tree bellaric. Terminalia bellerica.
41 Haridrataru Hedu tree Nauclea cordifolia
42 Harija Cane Himalaya calamusfalconeri
43 Haritaki Amacha Hirda tree
Myrobalans Terminalia
chebula
44
Indradanti or
Danti Indradant Baliospermum montanum.
45 Indrataru tree Terminalia Arjun
46 Jambba Java Plum Syzygium Cumini
47 Jati Jasmine. Jasmium grandiflorum
48 Jyotishmati Creeper
Cardiospermum
Halicacobum Linn
49 Kachnar Kachnar Bauhinia variegata
50 Kadali Plantain Musa paradiasiaca
51 Kadamb Kadamb tree Anthocephalus cadumba
52 Kakodumbar Fir wood tree Falgu
53 Kampilak Kamala tree Mallotus philippensis
54 Kanchan Kachnar Bauhinia variegata
55 Kantakarika
Solanum
Jacquini Solanum Indicum
56 Kapittha Wood Apple Limonia acidissima.
57 Karanj Poonga Oil Tree Pongamia pinnata
58 KarNikar Pangara Erythrina indica
59 Karvir /Karir Oleander Nerium Odorum
119 Kashmari Unknown Gmalena arberia
60 Kataphal
Myrica
esculenta
Myrica esculenta.Myrica esc
ulenta
61 Keshar Saffron. Saffron&Tin- DanieleFontana
62 Ketaki Screw Pine Pandanus odoratissimus.
63 Khadir Catechu Acacia catechau
64 Kharjur Date palm Phoenix Sylvestris
65 Kikunch Lemon tree. Citrus lemon
66 Kokilakshya tree Hygrophila spenosa
67 Kowidar Kowidar tree Bauhinia tomentos
68 Kshirini Rubber tree Flueggia leuceoppyrus
69 Kush Kush grass Kush grass
70 Kutaj or Kutaki Coneru Picrohizo kuitoa.
71 Lodha Tilak Tree Symplocos beddomei
72 Madayantika Mehandi Lausonia Alba
73 Madhuk Butter tree Madhuka longifoli

74 Madhuk Butter tree Madhuka longifoli
75 Maleyak Cork tree oak Quercus suler
76 MashparNi
wild kidney
bean Phaseolus munog
77 Murwa creeper Clematis triloba
78 Nadwat Bamboo Bambusa bambos..
79 Nagkeshar Unknown Mammamia longiflora
80 Naglata Beetle leaf Piper betle
81 Narikel Coconut tree Cocus nucifera
82 Navamalika
Jasmine
creeper Jaspinum sp.
83 Nichul Unknown Unknown
84 Nilini Indigo Indigofera tinctoria
85 Nirgudi Nirgudi Vitex Negundo
86 Nishottar
Balsum white
variety Unknown
87 Nishottar Unknown Unknown
88
Nyagrodha or
Vata Bunyan Ficus Indicus
89 Padma Ebony Pithecellobium flexicaule
90
Palash or
Kinshuk
Flame of the
forest Butea frondosa.
91 Panus Jackfruit Artocarpus integrifolia
92 Parijatak Nyctanthes arbortrist is.
93 Pilu Pilu tree Salvadora persica
95 Pindar Pindara tree Combretum ovalifolium
96 Pishit or Kharjur Date palm Phoenix dactilifera
97 Pluksha Black fir tree Ficus lusida
98
Poog or
Karamuk Areca Palm Areca catechu
99 Punnag
Alexandrain
Laurel Ochuro-carpus logifolium
100 Purushak Falsa Grewia asiatia
101 Rajadan Pylchar. Buchanania lanzan.
102 Rohit tree Unknown
103 SaptaparN Alstonia Alstonia scholaris.
104 Sariva
sarsaparilla
creeper Hemidesmusindicus
105 Sarja Teak tree Tectona grandis
106 Shak Teak tree Tectona grandis
107 Shak Babul Acacia Arabica
108 Shal Sal tree Shorea robusta
109 Shama
Thorny capar
brush Capparis brevispina
110 Shami Sprung tree. Prosopis spyicigers
111 Shami Spung tree. Prosopis spyicigers
112 Shigru Drumstick Moring a pterygesperma

113 Shirish Rain tree Siris
Albizzia lebbek Accacia
Sirissa
114 Shishamp Sissoo tree Dalbergia latifolia
115 Shishumar Creeper Unknown
116 Shiva Unknown Unknown
117 Shlemantak Bhokar tree Cordia latifolia
118 Shriparni Kayfal tree Myrica esculanta
120 Shyama
Thorny capar
brush Capparis brevispina
121 Shyonak Shonak-Tetu Shonak-Tetu
122 Stathak
Royal
Poinciana. Delonix regia.
123 Sthalpadmini lotus Creeper Ionidium suffruticosum
124 Sukarpadi
Wild sweet
potato Dioscoren sativa
125 Suradruma Pine Cedrus deodara
126 Surja or simha Teak tree Tectona grandis.
127 SuvarNamra Bauhinia tree Bauhinia acuminata
128 Syonak Shonak-Tetu Shonak-Tetu
129 Tala Palmyra Palm Borassus flabellifer.
130 Tilak Tilak Unknown
131 Tinduk
Roxb Cabinet
tree Diospyros melanoxylon
132 Tishris
Red
Sandalwood Dalbergia aojeinenaia
133 Twakpatra Cinamum Cinamum tree
134 Udambar Country Fig Ficus glomirata
135 Ushir or ViraN Kuskus grass Andropogon muricatus
136 Varahi Creeper Dioscoren Sativa
137 Vartaki Unknown Unknown
138 VaruN
Garlic-Pear
Tree Crateva religiosa
139 Vetus Rattan (Cane) Calamas rotang
140 Visha Mosses Musci
141
Vyadhighra or
Suwarnak
Indian
laburnum Casscia fistula
142 Vyaghrapada
Thorny
Caparbrush Capparis brevispina
***.***

9-ABOUT THE EDITOR
Dr. Ashok Nene
 Designation - Former Professor of Civil Engineering & Dean VNIT, Nagpur.
 Specialization - Geotechnical Engineering.
 Qualifications -B.E., M.E. Ph.D. IIT Roorkee, MIGS, MISET
 Experience -Supervised more than 150 Consultancy projects involving Soil
Investigations, Quality Control Works, and Setting up Laboratories etc.
 Award - Khosla Memorial Award (1987) by IIT Roorkee, for Technical Paper
published in ASCE.
 Nomination - Nominated by Indian Geotechnical Society to Tech. Committee
TC-19 of International Society of Soil Mechanics & Foundation Engineering
(ISSMFE) on "Preservation of Historical Sites" for one term of 4 years.
 Software - Developed six CAL-CAD Self learning Software packages for Civil
Engineering students.
 Patent - One patent on “Use of Geo-foam Geo-synthetics for expansive soils”
 Research Topics - Anchor foundations, Geo-synthetics, Software
development, Mnemonics, Shilpashastra, Erosion Control and Rural roads.
 Guidance-Two Ph.D. and Two M. Tech. Dissertations Completed.
 Two Ph.D. dissertations under progress.
 Publications -Published more than 50 papers in National and International
journals and conference proceedings.
 Web Uploads - More than 40 Papers & PPT presentations on science and
technology in ancient India are available on web, (Search words –ashoknene
OR ancient India).
 Print Books -
1. Pride of India (1994), Pub. By Sanskrit Bharati , New Delhi.
2. Prachin Hindi Shilpa Shastra (2010) Pub. By Nachiket Prakashan, Nagpur.
3. Geotechnical Engineering in Ancient India, (2011) Pub. By Pune
Vidyarthigruha Prakashan, Pune. (Included in a Time Capsule installed at
Paris 2013, as India’s contribution, submitted by Indian Geotechnical Society,
New Delhi).

 E-Books-Edited & Uploaded at the site Bookganga.com
1. Water Resources in ancient India.
2. Transportation engineering in ancient India.
3. Geotechnical Engineering in ancient India.
4. Building materials and construction techniques of ancient India.
5. Prachin Hindi Shilpashastra.
6. Shilpashastra -Engineering philosophy of Ancient India.
 Books under publication-
1. Engineering Techniques of ancient India.
2. Environmental Engineering in ancient India.
3. Khani Shastra –Mining and metallurgy of ancient India.
 Invited Lectures-Delivered many lectures. Last presentation at Indian
Science Congress, Mumbai, Jan 2015, on topic “Civil Engineering applications
of ancient Indian Botany.
 Mission - Efforts are being made to include an elective subject "Science &
Technology of ancient India" in the curriculum of Civil Engineering at
university level.
 Email ID - nene_ashok@yahoo.com or prof.ashok.nene@gmail.com
***.***

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