The document discusses mining and metallurgy techniques from ancient India. It describes 18 states where mining took place and the main ores found in each state. Ten engineering sciences from ancient India are listed, including khani shastra (mining and metallurgy). Four techniques (vidyas) and 12 skills (kalas) related to khani shastra are defined. Techniques for gemology, calcination, alloy making, and metal separation are summarized. Skills for iron smithing, glass making, metal pot making, and gold testing are also outlined. Mining terminology from ancient Sanskrit texts is provided and techniques from texts like the Arthashastra are summarized.
The document provides an overview of metallurgy in ancient India. It discusses the commonly used metals like gold, silver, copper, and iron. It highlights India's early achievements in metallurgy, including the Iron Pillar of Delhi which was constructed in the 5th century CE and has not rusted due to its unique composition. The pillar was originally located elsewhere and moved to its current location in front of a mosque in 1191 CE. India has a proud heritage in fields like metallurgy, mathematics, and astronomy.
This document discusses the origin and development of iron technology in ancient India. It begins by outlining the importance of iron and some key issues regarding its introduction and use in India. It then examines the earliest historical references to Indian iron from Greek sources in the 5th century BCE. Archaeological evidence suggests iron metallurgy began indigenously in India as early as 1800 BCE and progressed through distinct stages. Literary sources also provide valuable information about ironworking techniques described as early as 500 BCE. Overall, the document argues that India had a long indigenous tradition of iron production and metallurgy spanning over 4000 years.
- Ancient Indian chemistry was known as Rasayan shastra, with mercury playing an important role. Processes like alchemy aimed to convert cheap metals to gold and silver, though modern science doubts these claims.
- Texts like Rasarnav from the 12th century provide details on purification processes, ingredients, and applications in metallurgy, medicine, construction and more. Technical terms and specifications showed a sophisticated understanding of chemistry.
- Archaeological evidence also indicates advanced metallurgical and glassmaking processes dating back thousands of years, as well as applications of chemistry in texts like the Arthashastra and Ayurvedic works. Ancient Indian chemistry was an established, practical field of study.
The document provides a history of chemistry in ancient India. It discusses developments from the Indus Valley Civilization including pottery production, brick making, and early mining/smelting of metals. During later historic periods, innovations included glass making, paper production, soap making, dyeing, cosmetics, inks, alcoholic beverages, pharmaceuticals, gunpowder, and early medieval Indian alchemy. Many key chemical processes and products had originated or were widely used in India from ancient times.
Development of copper technology in ancient indiaPrachya Adhyayan
1) Copper was widely used in ancient India from as early as the 5th millennium BC based on evidence from sites like Mehrgarh and Nal.
2) During the Indus civilization between 2600-1900 BC, copper, bronze, and other metals like lead, silver, and gold were commonly used to make vessels, tools, weapons, and ornaments as seen at major sites.
3) After the Indus civilization, copper use continued and spread to other parts of India as seen in artifacts from late Harappan sites as well as Neolithic and Chalcolithic sites across the subcontinent.
1. The Hathibada Ghosundi Inscriptions were discovered in three fragments found near Nagari Village in Rajasthan, dating to around 100 BCE.
2. Written in Sanskrit in the Brahmi script, the inscriptions describe the construction of an enclosing wall around a stone object of worship for the deities Samkarshana and Vasudeva by a king named Sarvatta, who performed the Vedic Ashvamedha sacrifice.
3. The inscriptions provide early evidence of Vaishnavism and the reverence of Krishna and Balarama in 1st century BCE India, as well as their association with Vishnu.
The document discusses sources related to the Sangam Age in Tamil Nadu between 300 BCE - 300 CE. There were three main literary sources: Tirukkural, a collection of 1,330 proverbs; Ettuttogai, a collection of 2,282 poems divided into love and war themes; and Tolkappiyam, a treatise on grammar, nature, and human behavior. There were also four major epics that described stories of kings and heroes. Archaeological sources included megalithic burial stones, memorial hero stones with descriptions of fallen warriors, and ancient cave inscriptions with poetry, history, and information about cities and trade.
The document provides an overview of metallurgy in ancient India. It discusses the commonly used metals like gold, silver, copper, and iron. It highlights India's early achievements in metallurgy, including the Iron Pillar of Delhi which was constructed in the 5th century CE and has not rusted due to its unique composition. The pillar was originally located elsewhere and moved to its current location in front of a mosque in 1191 CE. India has a proud heritage in fields like metallurgy, mathematics, and astronomy.
This document discusses the origin and development of iron technology in ancient India. It begins by outlining the importance of iron and some key issues regarding its introduction and use in India. It then examines the earliest historical references to Indian iron from Greek sources in the 5th century BCE. Archaeological evidence suggests iron metallurgy began indigenously in India as early as 1800 BCE and progressed through distinct stages. Literary sources also provide valuable information about ironworking techniques described as early as 500 BCE. Overall, the document argues that India had a long indigenous tradition of iron production and metallurgy spanning over 4000 years.
- Ancient Indian chemistry was known as Rasayan shastra, with mercury playing an important role. Processes like alchemy aimed to convert cheap metals to gold and silver, though modern science doubts these claims.
- Texts like Rasarnav from the 12th century provide details on purification processes, ingredients, and applications in metallurgy, medicine, construction and more. Technical terms and specifications showed a sophisticated understanding of chemistry.
- Archaeological evidence also indicates advanced metallurgical and glassmaking processes dating back thousands of years, as well as applications of chemistry in texts like the Arthashastra and Ayurvedic works. Ancient Indian chemistry was an established, practical field of study.
The document provides a history of chemistry in ancient India. It discusses developments from the Indus Valley Civilization including pottery production, brick making, and early mining/smelting of metals. During later historic periods, innovations included glass making, paper production, soap making, dyeing, cosmetics, inks, alcoholic beverages, pharmaceuticals, gunpowder, and early medieval Indian alchemy. Many key chemical processes and products had originated or were widely used in India from ancient times.
Development of copper technology in ancient indiaPrachya Adhyayan
1) Copper was widely used in ancient India from as early as the 5th millennium BC based on evidence from sites like Mehrgarh and Nal.
2) During the Indus civilization between 2600-1900 BC, copper, bronze, and other metals like lead, silver, and gold were commonly used to make vessels, tools, weapons, and ornaments as seen at major sites.
3) After the Indus civilization, copper use continued and spread to other parts of India as seen in artifacts from late Harappan sites as well as Neolithic and Chalcolithic sites across the subcontinent.
1. The Hathibada Ghosundi Inscriptions were discovered in three fragments found near Nagari Village in Rajasthan, dating to around 100 BCE.
2. Written in Sanskrit in the Brahmi script, the inscriptions describe the construction of an enclosing wall around a stone object of worship for the deities Samkarshana and Vasudeva by a king named Sarvatta, who performed the Vedic Ashvamedha sacrifice.
3. The inscriptions provide early evidence of Vaishnavism and the reverence of Krishna and Balarama in 1st century BCE India, as well as their association with Vishnu.
The document discusses sources related to the Sangam Age in Tamil Nadu between 300 BCE - 300 CE. There were three main literary sources: Tirukkural, a collection of 1,330 proverbs; Ettuttogai, a collection of 2,282 poems divided into love and war themes; and Tolkappiyam, a treatise on grammar, nature, and human behavior. There were also four major epics that described stories of kings and heroes. Archaeological sources included megalithic burial stones, memorial hero stones with descriptions of fallen warriors, and ancient cave inscriptions with poetry, history, and information about cities and trade.
Vijayaditya III was a powerful king of the Eastern Chalukya dynasty of Vengi who reigned from 849-892 CE. He defeated several neighboring dynasties including the Rashtrakutas, Pallavas, Gangas, and Cholas, gaining control over a large portion of the Deccan. After the death of his Rashtrakuta ally Amoghavarsha I, Vijayaditya declared independence from the Rashtrakutas. His successors Bhima I and Vijayaditya IV continued expanding the kingdom, but it eventually declined with the rise of the Kakatiya dynasty.
Black-and-red ware is a pottery characterized by a black interior and outer rim with a red exterior. This pottery was first reported in India in 1945 and has been dated back to the 6th millennium BC. It is associated with Neolithic, Chalcolithic, and Iron Age cultures throughout India and has been found at many archaeological sites ranging from 3000 BC to the early centuries CE. Typologically, the shape and fabric of black-and-red ware changed over time with cultural transformations.
The PPP is for the students of UG & PG not for my API and not even for the commercial purpose.
The *slide 50* of this PPP is wrongly typed the name *Samudragupta instead of Chandragupta II*. so kindly correct in your notes.
I. The murals of the Chola period were found in important temples built between the 10th-13th century CE, including the Brihadeeswara Temple in Thanjavur.
II. The murals discovered at Brihadeeswara Temple were painted between 1008-1012 CE and depict Hindu religious themes like Shiva as Nataraja and stories from mythology.
III. The natural pigments were applied using a fresco technique on lime plaster and include masterpieces like dancing celestial beings and Shiva in various forms. While covered for centuries, conservation efforts are helping to preserve these important examples of Chola art.
1. In 1898, British engineer William Claxton Peppe discovered a buried stupa at Piprahwa near India-Nepal border while excavating a large mound.
2. Inside the stupa, Peppe uncovered a soapstone casket containing various relics and gold objects that were dated to the time of Buddha.
3. The most notable find was an inscription on a soapstone vase describing the relics as belonging to the brothers of Sukiti and their family members.
The document provides historical background on the Chola dynasty and their contributions to art and architecture from the 9th to 13th centuries CE in South India. Some key points:
- The Cholas established a powerful empire and patronized architecture, building many grand temples across their territories.
- Important Chola period temples mentioned include the Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur built by Rajaraja I, the Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple built by Rajendra Chola I, and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram.
- Chola art flourished in sculptures, murals, bronzes, and other mediums seen on the orn
This document discusses megalithic sites from South India's prehistoric past. Megaliths were large stone burial monuments used for important tribal figures dating back to around the 5th century BC. They have been found around river valleys, trade routes, and strategic locations. Different types of megalithic structures have been discovered, including dolmens which are single-chamber tombs made of large capstones supported by other standing stones, and menhirs which are single large upright standing stones that may stand alone or in groups. Artifacts found at these sites provide insights into the Iron Age culture and way of life of these early tribes.
Indo-Greek coins were produced from 300 BCE to 100 BCE in areas now encompassing Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India. Two important Indo-Greek kings discussed are Eucratides I, who ruled from 171-145 BCE, and Menander I, who ruled from 165/155-130 BCE. Indo-Greek kings are primarily known through their coinage, which provides important historical information about the rulers and their territories. Eucratides I produced both Bactrian and Indo-Greek coins in various metals and denominations to commemorate his conquests in modern day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India.
The document summarizes information about the Mehrauli iron pillar inscription in Delhi, India. It discusses the pillar's location, discovery and decipherment of the inscription, physical details, metallurgical properties, technique of manufacture, corrosion resistance, inscribed text, and debates around identifying the king Chandra mentioned. Based on paleography and content, most scholars date the inscription to the early Gupta period of the 4th-5th century CE. The technology used to create the massive iron pillar over 1500 years ago is remarkable.
The Satvahana dynasty ruled from 235 BCE to 224 CE in India. Some key points:
- They ruled from their capitals in Pratishthana and Amaravati and were known as the protectors of South India.
- Important rulers included Simuka, Satakarni I, Gautamiputra Satakarni, and Pulumavi IV who was the last ruler.
- The dynasty promoted Buddhism and other religions and their empire spanned from the Narmada River in the north to Krishna River in the south at its height.
- They contributed greatly to the development of art, architecture, and trade. Sites like the stup
Maritime trade has a long history in India dating back to the Indus Valley Civilization. During this period, the Harappans established an extensive maritime trade network connecting India to Mesopotamia and other parts of Western Asia. Major exports included timber, ivory, and luxury goods like lapis lazuli. The trade continued and expanded after the decline of the Harappans. Under the Mauryan Empire in the 4th-3rd centuries BCE, maritime trade flourished as the state established rules and infrastructure to regulate ports and trade. Major trading partners included regions along the Red Sea like Egypt and East Africa. In later centuries, India engaged in extensive trade with Rome, Byzantium, Southeast Asia,
The Gupta Empire ruled much of northern India from 320 to 550 CE and established a period of peace and prosperity. This Golden Age of India saw advancements in science, technology, art, literature, and religion that solidified Hindu culture. Gupta architecture can be seen in their elaborate temples built to various Hindu gods during this religiously intense time. Sculpture also flourished as figures of Hindu deities and Buddhas emerged.
The PPP is for the students of UG and PG only. Not for my API.
For more pics of Chola period-
https://www.clevelandart.org/art/collection/search?i=1&search=chola
- The Chola dynasty produced many bronze sculptures from the 10th-13th centuries CE, primarily depicting Hindu gods like Shiva and Vishnu.
- The lost wax casting technique was commonly used, involving making a wax model, encasing it in clay, and melting the wax to leave a hollow mold for molten metal.
- Early Chola bronzes were more formal in style while later ones had more elongated bodies and exaggerated features. Major production centers included Thanjavur, Kumbakonam, and Chidambaram.
- Iconography and symbolism were carefully followed according to religious texts. Natraja sculptures of Shiva's cosmic dance became prominent. Buddha and Jain figures
This Presentation is prepared for Graduate Students. A presentation consisting of basic information regarding the topic. Students are advised to get more information from recommended books and articles. This presentation is only for students and purely for academic purposes. The pictures/Maps included in the presentation are taken/copied from the internet. The presenter is thankful to them and herewith courtesy is given to all. This presentation is only for academic purposes.
The presentation is based on the monolithic free standing pillar architecture of India with special focus on the Mauryan pillars. This is not for personal academic benefits... this is for the students of UG and PG..
This document provides information about the largest monolithic statue of Gommateshwara Bahubali located in Shravanabelagola, Karnataka. Some key details:
- The 57-foot tall granite statue was built in 982-983 CE by the minister Chamundaraya of the Western Ganga Dynasty.
- It depicts Bahubali in a standing posture after years of meditation and penance, with vines and an anthill around his legs.
- The statue is considered one of the most important pilgrimage sites in Jainism and receives thousands of pilgrims every 12 years for a ceremony where it is anointed.
- Bahubali was the son
The document provides information about the Didarganj Yakshini statue found in Patna, Bihar, India. It was accidentally discovered in 1917 buried on the banks of the Ganges river near Didarganj. Made of sandstone, the statue depicts a female figure holding a fly whisk in graceful posture. Dating to the Mauryan period in the 1st century BCE, it demonstrates the high quality craftsmanship of Magadhan artists. Now displayed at the Bihar Museum, the iconic statue is a rare surviving example of ancient Indian art despite damage over time.
The Gandhara janapada, located in modern-day northwest India and Pakistan, issued punch-marked coins with a distinctive "bent-bar wheel-marked" design. While some attribute these coins to the Achaemenid Persian Empire that ruled the area, their unique design suggests coinage originated earlier in Gandhara itself. Even though Gandhara was a Persian satrapy, its coins differed radically from standard Persian coinage, implying they had a long history of local use prior to Persian rule. The bent-bar wheel design provides evidence that coinage was developed independently in India, including the Gandhara region, before later Persian and Greek influence.
The document provides information on Punch Marked Coins (PMC) that were the earliest coins used in ancient India between 600-200 BCE. It discusses that PMC were initially issued by merchant guilds and later states, and represented a trade currency during a period of intense trade. It describes that PMC can be divided into two types - those attributed to local Janapada states and those of the later imperial Mauryan period. The document outlines various Janapada regions that issued PMC and details some of their distinctive coin features, symbols, and regional affiliations.
Coins_MA, Sem.II_Material Remains as Source of Ancient Indian History & Cultu...Banaras Hindu University
Punch-marked coins and Indo-Greek coins were important forms of currency in ancient India that provide historical and cultural insights. Punch-marked coins date from 600-200 BCE and feature irregular shapes with symbols punched into the metal. They were issued by merchant guilds and states and can explain contemporary flora, fauna, trade networks, and territorial control. Indo-Greek coins date from 200 BCE to 100 CE and were precisely die-struck in precious metals. They were produced by over 40 rulers across South Asia and Afghanistan and typically included the ruler's name and portrait with Greek or Indian religious imagery. Both coin types influenced later Indian dynasties and provide evidence of economic and cultural exchange.
Vijayaditya III was a powerful king of the Eastern Chalukya dynasty of Vengi who reigned from 849-892 CE. He defeated several neighboring dynasties including the Rashtrakutas, Pallavas, Gangas, and Cholas, gaining control over a large portion of the Deccan. After the death of his Rashtrakuta ally Amoghavarsha I, Vijayaditya declared independence from the Rashtrakutas. His successors Bhima I and Vijayaditya IV continued expanding the kingdom, but it eventually declined with the rise of the Kakatiya dynasty.
Black-and-red ware is a pottery characterized by a black interior and outer rim with a red exterior. This pottery was first reported in India in 1945 and has been dated back to the 6th millennium BC. It is associated with Neolithic, Chalcolithic, and Iron Age cultures throughout India and has been found at many archaeological sites ranging from 3000 BC to the early centuries CE. Typologically, the shape and fabric of black-and-red ware changed over time with cultural transformations.
The PPP is for the students of UG & PG not for my API and not even for the commercial purpose.
The *slide 50* of this PPP is wrongly typed the name *Samudragupta instead of Chandragupta II*. so kindly correct in your notes.
I. The murals of the Chola period were found in important temples built between the 10th-13th century CE, including the Brihadeeswara Temple in Thanjavur.
II. The murals discovered at Brihadeeswara Temple were painted between 1008-1012 CE and depict Hindu religious themes like Shiva as Nataraja and stories from mythology.
III. The natural pigments were applied using a fresco technique on lime plaster and include masterpieces like dancing celestial beings and Shiva in various forms. While covered for centuries, conservation efforts are helping to preserve these important examples of Chola art.
1. In 1898, British engineer William Claxton Peppe discovered a buried stupa at Piprahwa near India-Nepal border while excavating a large mound.
2. Inside the stupa, Peppe uncovered a soapstone casket containing various relics and gold objects that were dated to the time of Buddha.
3. The most notable find was an inscription on a soapstone vase describing the relics as belonging to the brothers of Sukiti and their family members.
The document provides historical background on the Chola dynasty and their contributions to art and architecture from the 9th to 13th centuries CE in South India. Some key points:
- The Cholas established a powerful empire and patronized architecture, building many grand temples across their territories.
- Important Chola period temples mentioned include the Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur built by Rajaraja I, the Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple built by Rajendra Chola I, and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram.
- Chola art flourished in sculptures, murals, bronzes, and other mediums seen on the orn
This document discusses megalithic sites from South India's prehistoric past. Megaliths were large stone burial monuments used for important tribal figures dating back to around the 5th century BC. They have been found around river valleys, trade routes, and strategic locations. Different types of megalithic structures have been discovered, including dolmens which are single-chamber tombs made of large capstones supported by other standing stones, and menhirs which are single large upright standing stones that may stand alone or in groups. Artifacts found at these sites provide insights into the Iron Age culture and way of life of these early tribes.
Indo-Greek coins were produced from 300 BCE to 100 BCE in areas now encompassing Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India. Two important Indo-Greek kings discussed are Eucratides I, who ruled from 171-145 BCE, and Menander I, who ruled from 165/155-130 BCE. Indo-Greek kings are primarily known through their coinage, which provides important historical information about the rulers and their territories. Eucratides I produced both Bactrian and Indo-Greek coins in various metals and denominations to commemorate his conquests in modern day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India.
The document summarizes information about the Mehrauli iron pillar inscription in Delhi, India. It discusses the pillar's location, discovery and decipherment of the inscription, physical details, metallurgical properties, technique of manufacture, corrosion resistance, inscribed text, and debates around identifying the king Chandra mentioned. Based on paleography and content, most scholars date the inscription to the early Gupta period of the 4th-5th century CE. The technology used to create the massive iron pillar over 1500 years ago is remarkable.
The Satvahana dynasty ruled from 235 BCE to 224 CE in India. Some key points:
- They ruled from their capitals in Pratishthana and Amaravati and were known as the protectors of South India.
- Important rulers included Simuka, Satakarni I, Gautamiputra Satakarni, and Pulumavi IV who was the last ruler.
- The dynasty promoted Buddhism and other religions and their empire spanned from the Narmada River in the north to Krishna River in the south at its height.
- They contributed greatly to the development of art, architecture, and trade. Sites like the stup
Maritime trade has a long history in India dating back to the Indus Valley Civilization. During this period, the Harappans established an extensive maritime trade network connecting India to Mesopotamia and other parts of Western Asia. Major exports included timber, ivory, and luxury goods like lapis lazuli. The trade continued and expanded after the decline of the Harappans. Under the Mauryan Empire in the 4th-3rd centuries BCE, maritime trade flourished as the state established rules and infrastructure to regulate ports and trade. Major trading partners included regions along the Red Sea like Egypt and East Africa. In later centuries, India engaged in extensive trade with Rome, Byzantium, Southeast Asia,
The Gupta Empire ruled much of northern India from 320 to 550 CE and established a period of peace and prosperity. This Golden Age of India saw advancements in science, technology, art, literature, and religion that solidified Hindu culture. Gupta architecture can be seen in their elaborate temples built to various Hindu gods during this religiously intense time. Sculpture also flourished as figures of Hindu deities and Buddhas emerged.
The PPP is for the students of UG and PG only. Not for my API.
For more pics of Chola period-
https://www.clevelandart.org/art/collection/search?i=1&search=chola
- The Chola dynasty produced many bronze sculptures from the 10th-13th centuries CE, primarily depicting Hindu gods like Shiva and Vishnu.
- The lost wax casting technique was commonly used, involving making a wax model, encasing it in clay, and melting the wax to leave a hollow mold for molten metal.
- Early Chola bronzes were more formal in style while later ones had more elongated bodies and exaggerated features. Major production centers included Thanjavur, Kumbakonam, and Chidambaram.
- Iconography and symbolism were carefully followed according to religious texts. Natraja sculptures of Shiva's cosmic dance became prominent. Buddha and Jain figures
This Presentation is prepared for Graduate Students. A presentation consisting of basic information regarding the topic. Students are advised to get more information from recommended books and articles. This presentation is only for students and purely for academic purposes. The pictures/Maps included in the presentation are taken/copied from the internet. The presenter is thankful to them and herewith courtesy is given to all. This presentation is only for academic purposes.
The presentation is based on the monolithic free standing pillar architecture of India with special focus on the Mauryan pillars. This is not for personal academic benefits... this is for the students of UG and PG..
This document provides information about the largest monolithic statue of Gommateshwara Bahubali located in Shravanabelagola, Karnataka. Some key details:
- The 57-foot tall granite statue was built in 982-983 CE by the minister Chamundaraya of the Western Ganga Dynasty.
- It depicts Bahubali in a standing posture after years of meditation and penance, with vines and an anthill around his legs.
- The statue is considered one of the most important pilgrimage sites in Jainism and receives thousands of pilgrims every 12 years for a ceremony where it is anointed.
- Bahubali was the son
The document provides information about the Didarganj Yakshini statue found in Patna, Bihar, India. It was accidentally discovered in 1917 buried on the banks of the Ganges river near Didarganj. Made of sandstone, the statue depicts a female figure holding a fly whisk in graceful posture. Dating to the Mauryan period in the 1st century BCE, it demonstrates the high quality craftsmanship of Magadhan artists. Now displayed at the Bihar Museum, the iconic statue is a rare surviving example of ancient Indian art despite damage over time.
The Gandhara janapada, located in modern-day northwest India and Pakistan, issued punch-marked coins with a distinctive "bent-bar wheel-marked" design. While some attribute these coins to the Achaemenid Persian Empire that ruled the area, their unique design suggests coinage originated earlier in Gandhara itself. Even though Gandhara was a Persian satrapy, its coins differed radically from standard Persian coinage, implying they had a long history of local use prior to Persian rule. The bent-bar wheel design provides evidence that coinage was developed independently in India, including the Gandhara region, before later Persian and Greek influence.
The document provides information on Punch Marked Coins (PMC) that were the earliest coins used in ancient India between 600-200 BCE. It discusses that PMC were initially issued by merchant guilds and later states, and represented a trade currency during a period of intense trade. It describes that PMC can be divided into two types - those attributed to local Janapada states and those of the later imperial Mauryan period. The document outlines various Janapada regions that issued PMC and details some of their distinctive coin features, symbols, and regional affiliations.
Coins_MA, Sem.II_Material Remains as Source of Ancient Indian History & Cultu...Banaras Hindu University
Punch-marked coins and Indo-Greek coins were important forms of currency in ancient India that provide historical and cultural insights. Punch-marked coins date from 600-200 BCE and feature irregular shapes with symbols punched into the metal. They were issued by merchant guilds and states and can explain contemporary flora, fauna, trade networks, and territorial control. Indo-Greek coins date from 200 BCE to 100 CE and were precisely die-struck in precious metals. They were produced by over 40 rulers across South Asia and Afghanistan and typically included the ruler's name and portrait with Greek or Indian religious imagery. Both coin types influenced later Indian dynasties and provide evidence of economic and cultural exchange.
Metal Works of Himachal Pradesh and Kerala.pptxAjoyMathew2
1) The document summarizes a student project comparing the metal art of Kerala and Himachal Pradesh. It includes sections on the metal works of each region, their origins and techniques, notable pieces, and a comparison of the two styles.
2) Kerala is known for its bell and brass metal works depicting mythological figures and events using lost wax casting. Famous pieces include the Aranmula mirror. Himachal Pradesh's Mohra metal works feature deities and emerged in the 14th century, commonly using gold, silver and bronze and appearing on temples.
3) Both arts signify their respective cultures but differ in materials used and applications, with Kerala focusing on figurines and Himachal Pradesh incorporating
This document provides information about some of the oldest books and languages in India. It discusses the four Vedas - the Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. The Rigveda, considered the oldest, contains over 1000 hymns and was composed in old Sanskrit. It praises gods like Agni, Indra, and Soma. Historians study the Rigveda by analyzing hymns that take the form of dialogues. The document also outlines some of the earliest languages in India and discusses how archaeologists learn about early communities by examining burial sites containing artifacts.
Hindu architecture ( Padmanabhaswamy Temple)Sarwar Azad
History of Dravida style temple architecture. introduction, sectional view, Gopuram of Padmanabhaswamy temple. The history, story and myths surrounding it and why it is the richest temple of the world.
Sources of Jammu and Kashmir of Kash.pptxAmita Gupta
- The document discusses various sources of information about the history of Jammu and Kashmir, including literary sources like ancient texts, the works of poets, and the Rajatarangini chronicle.
- Archaeological evidence uncovered temples, sculptures, and terracotta tiles from sites like Harwan dating back to 3rd-6th centuries AD. Ruins from the era of King Lalitaditya at Martanda temple also provide insights.
- Numismatic evidence like coins issued by the Karkota dynasty further illuminate the political history of the region.
Cultureal Heritage - Handicraft and ArtsMalhar Shah
This document provides an overview of various handicrafts and art forms in India. It discusses several crafts including clay work, weaving, embroidery, leatherwork, bead and enamel work, metalwork, woodwork, and paintings. It also summarizes different classical dance forms like Bharatanatyam, Kuchipudi, Kathakali, Kathak, and Manipuri. The document highlights India's rich cultural heritage in arts and crafts that developed over thousands of years.
This document provides an overview of the 64 arts described in ancient Indian texts. It discusses the arts mentioned in texts like the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Puranas. Specifically, it outlines the 64 arts described by Sage Shukracharya and Keldi Shri Basavrajendra. The arts are grouped into categories like work-based, gambling-based, sleeping posture-based, and miscellaneous. Examples of arts mentioned include singing, dancing, playing musical instruments, painting, sewing, wrestling, cooking, gardening, and perfumery. The document also discusses classifications of the arts by other ancient Indian scholars and provides more details on dancing and playing musical instruments.
This document provides an overview of the 64 arts described in ancient Indian texts. It discusses the arts mentioned in texts like the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Puranas. Specifically, it outlines the 64 arts described by Sage Shukracharya and Keldi Shri Basavrajendra. The arts are grouped into categories like work-based, gambling-based, sleeping posture-based, and miscellaneous. Examples of arts mentioned include singing, dancing, playing musical instruments, painting, sewing, wrestling, cooking, gardening, and perfumery. The document also discusses classifications of these arts by other ancient Indian scholars.
The Mukteswara Temple was built around 970 AD during the rule of the Somavamsi king Yayati I. It is considered one of the earliest examples of the Kalinga style of temple architecture. The temple features intricate carvings on its walls including images of dancers, vyala riders, and nagas. Its architecture includes a rekha deul shrine, a pidha deul entrance, and sculptures of Gajalakshmi and the Saptamatrikas on the outer walls. The temple marks the beginning of the distinct Odishan style of temple building that would be further refined in later centuries.
The document summarizes research on the ancient city of Dwarka in Gujarat, India. It describes Dwarka's connections to Lord Krishna in Hindu mythology and findings from archaeological excavations that indicate the city was inhabited from around 1500 BC. Underwater and on land excavations by organizations like the Archaeological Survey of India have found artifacts, structures, and remnants of docks and defenses providing evidence that Dwarka was an established coastal city and capital of Krishna's kingdom. Radiocarbon dating of artifacts places the age of some structures and artifacts to between 9500-7500 years old, supporting the historic basis of myths about the city.
09-10-2020 History of Rasa Shastra.pptxshashankps4
1. Rasashastra is a specialized branch of Ayurveda dealing with metals, minerals, and animal products like mercury.
2. References to metals like gold, silver, and copper can be found in ancient texts like the Vedas and Samhitas, though therapeutic uses were limited.
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1. Khani Shastra
Mining and Metallurgy of Ancient India
Dr. Ashok S. Nene
Retd. Professor of Civil Engineering
V.N.I.T. Nagpur
2. INTRODUCTION
“Shilpa” is derived from a Sanskrit root –
Sheel samadhau
literally means anything that pleases your
mind.
नानाविधानाां िस्तुनाां यांत्राणाां कल्पसांपदा ।
धातुनाां साधनाांच िास्तुनाां शिल्पसां्ञीततां ॥
भृगुसांहिता
3. Terminology
Shilpashastra - The engineering Philosophy related
to a particular subject comprising different
techniques skills or arts.
Shilpa-samhita –A compilation of rules and
procedure related to a particular science.
Vidya –A techniques related to creation or execution
of a Shilpa.
Kala - An art or skill acquired by practice and
experience. Even a blind of deaf person can master
any particular skill.
5. Vidyas and Kalas: Four Techniques (Vidya) and
twelve Arts or Skills related to Khani shastra
(Mining & Metallurgy) are;
T1- Druti Vidya- Gemology
T2- Bhasmkaran Vidya- Calcinations
T3- Sankaran Vidya- Alloy Making
T4- Pruthhakaran Vidya- Separation of metals
6. S1- Ratnadisdyana- Cutting and polishing of gems
S2- Kshyariskashan- Slag removal
S3- Kshyarparikshya- Testing of chemicals
S4- Snehaniskashan- Removal of oils
S5- Ishtikabhajan- Bricks, tiles, pottery etc making
S6- Dhatusanyog- Combination of metals with herbs
7. S7- Kachapatradikaran- Glass making
S8- Lohabhisar- Iron Smithy
S9- Bhanda kriya- Making metal pots
S10- Swarnadidarshan- Grading of gold
S11- Makarandadikruti- Powder making with the
help of honey
S12- Sanyog dhatudyana- Metal alloys
8. • Sage Agastya, desirous of strength, used his pick-axe
for the benefit of men and vegetation..
• Sage Agastya explored water wells and mines.
• An intelligent person acquires gold and lives long
• An experienced person sharpens a steel axe and
uses for cutting.
Khanishastra in Vedic Literature
10. Sn State Mountain River Tree Ores
1 Yalhik Hemkut Vipasha Pipal Gold
2 Souvir Pariyatra Sindhu Shak Mercury
3 Kaikay Himalaya Shatadru Oudumbar Silver
4 Magadh Gandhamadan Ganga Vat Copper
5 Malav Chitrakut Kalindi Plaksha Lead
6 Anga Uday Gandaki Bilwa Tin
7 Vanga Malyawan Sarayu Tulsi Bairunt*
8 Kalinga Nishadh Shona Amalaksha Iron
9 Kamboj Lokalok Irawati Palash Karkut *
11. 10 Vidarbha Vindhya Narmada Shirish Tin
11 Lat Satpuda Tapti Parijat Bell metal
12 Surashtra Raiwatak Gomati Aamla Lead
13 Aarat Sahyadri Godawari Kapittj Lodhra *
14 Ramsrushti Asta Bhimarathi Ber Blue iron
15 Vishwamit
ra Srushti
Shriparwat Krushna Bakul White iron
16 Padya Nilgiri Kaveri Patli Gold
17 Chola Malay Tamraparni Chandan Red iron
18 Madra Trikut Dhrutmala Tamarind Gems
12. 3. TECHNIQUES AND SKILLS
3.1 Gemology ( Ratnaparikshya)
• Planets, birth stone and Herbs
• Gems and Semi -precious stones
•Identification
•Cutting and Polishing
13. Opaqueness-Mala
Spot--Bindu,
streak or line-Rekha
Non uniform cuts-Tras
Marks-Kakapada
Ancient text "Yuktikalptaru" specifies a test to
identify guanine pearls.
Diamonds
Ratnapariksha mentions five defects of a
diamond
16. 3.2. Calcinations Technique
BhasmikaraN Vidya
A. Alkali extraction -KshyaraNishkasan
B. Testing of Alkali - Kshyaraparisha
C. Oil extraction -Snehanishkasan
D. Brick making- Ishtikadibhajan
17. D1. Firing of clay bricks and tile, pottery
products - Ishtikadibhajan
•Shilparatna, (c14, v48-51).
•Vastuvidya (c6.v20-32) ,
•Shilpadipak (c10v20)
•Aparajit Pruchcha
The process of making bricks is given in
18. D2-Lime Calcination
Bhrugu Samhita (Chapter 5) describes in detail
the process of preparation of lime mortar.
D3.Glass making
Shatapatha Brahmana and Vinaya Pitaka
mentions glass. The archaeological excavations at
Takshashila, gives the evidence of glass in 3rd
century .
19. C- Oil extraction-Snehanishkasan
As per Kautilya Arthashastra Four types of oily
liquids are Ghee, mustard seeds oil, animal fat
and bone-marrow.
Oils were also extracted from seeds of Neem,
Mango stone, wood apple, etc.
It is surprising that other oils such as
cottonseed oil, groundnut oil, coconut oil or
linseed oil etc are not mentioned.
20. 3.3. Sankar vidya – Mixture of two or
more things
There are three methods to mix metals,
• Balasankar – Mixing by force, such as hitting two
metals.
• Jalasanskar – mixing by adding water such as
preparation of lime mortar by adding lime, sand and
water.
• Agnisankar –Mixing by heating to melt metals and to
form alloys. This method is mostly used under the
Metallurgy.
21. Six skills or Kala are listed below,
S1-Dhatu Aushadhi sanyog - Use of herbs in metal
smelting
S2-KachapartadikaraN - Glass making
S3-Lohabhisar - Iron smithy
S4-Bhandakriya - Making of metal pots
S5-SwarNathamya darshan - Testing purity of gold
S6-Makarandikruti - Use of honey in making metal
powder.
Skills under Sankar Vidya
22. The Iron smelting technique of Munda
blacksmiths (Karmar) is mentioned in Rig-
Veda (RV 9.112.2).
जरततशभ: औषधञीतशभ: पणेशभ: िकु नाना कर्ाार: अश्र्शभ:
द्य्भभ: हिरण्यिांतशर्च्छतत।ऋग्िेद ९.११२.२
Use of herbs in metal smelting is an
ancient Indian art mastered by tribal
iron smiths (known as Munda,
Karmars or Asura). They convert iron
into steel by treating it with dried
wood and green leaves (medicine).
The cassia auriculara is used for this
purpose.
23. Skill 3-Lohabhisar – Iron smithy
A Blacksmith makes many
kinds of tools and other
objects out of metal. The
first metals used were
Bronze and Iron. There are
two main methods of
metalworking used to
produce decorative and
functional items. Forging
and casting.
24. The ancient Indian texts on Dhanurved by Jamadnya
or Vishamitra. describe techniques of wars and
weapons. These texts describe the techniques of
tempering of steel. Modern metallurgists should verify
these techniques using modern instruments.
Tempering of steel by herbs and salts
25. Process of tempering by Sage Jamadnya
• Grind Pimpali (Piper longum,Linn ),
Saindhav (Rock salt-salt of Sindh ) and
Kusta ( Saussurea Lappa) in cow’s urine
(Gomutra)
• Coat the tiller with this mixture and heat
it in a fire till the color of steel turns yellow.
Immerse in oil till it cools down.
26. Process of tempering by Sage Vishamitra
• Grind five types of salts# (Panchlavan) to
fine powder
• Add mustard (Sasharp) seeds and honey.
• Coat the tiller with this mixture and heat
it in a fire till the color of steel turns blue
Immerse in cold water.
27. The art of metal work is known to Indians for almost
5000 years from now.
Indian craftsmen have been using different metals like
iron, copper, silver and alloys like bronze, bell metal,
white metal etc
They produce items such as pots, pans, utensils, photo
frames, sculptures of deities, mythological figures and
animals.
Banaras is well known for cast sculptures. Moradabad is
famous for brass works
Skill 4-Bhandakriya - Making of metal pots
28. Skill 5-SwarNathamya darshan –
Testing purity of gold or silver
Traditional Goldsmiths of India, test gold by
‘touch stone or Kasoti stone. The stone is
cleaned by rubbing with charcoal and then by
seed of Castor.
29. Skill 6-Makarandikruti –
Use of honey in making metal powder
Nano-particles (NP) in consumer products are
made from Zinc or Titanium oxide. Different
products such as optoelectronic devices,
sunscreens, paint pigments, rubber
components, cosmetics, food additives, and
medicines contain such Nano-particles.
30. Green synthesis method are developed
to produce metal Nano-particles by using
natural compounds or plant components
In place of honey .
A- Aloevera plant extract
B- Neem tree leaf extract
C-Honey Solution for Zinc sulphide
32. MINING IN ANCIENT INDIA
Glossary of Sanskrit Terms
Sanskrit English Sanskrit English
haritala arsenic kanchanika Gold ore
sasyaka opal gomedaka agate
khanyadhyaks
hah
superintende
nt of mines
lohadhyaksh
ah
superintendent
of metals
Vimalaka A type of gem Vajrakhanda Yam
vaikrintaka mercury rakta brass
kansa bronze tala Sulphurate of
arsenic
Manasheel Antimony Fenasham Arsenic
Navasagar Ammonium
Chloride
Paarad Mercury
33. Kautilya’s Arthashashtra (450 B.C.) contains ten books
(volumes) and 150 chapters. Chapter 12 and 13 of the
book two is related to Mining and Metallurgy.
As per the text the superintendent of mines shall
examine old and mines. The richness of ore can be
ascertained by weight, depth of color, piercing smell,
and taste.
34. • Sulphurate of arsenic (haritala) - Liquids
which ooze out from pits ceaves, slopes, or
deep excavations of well-known mountains;
which are as yellow as ripe turmeric.
• Ores of gold (kanchanika) - Color as that of
petals of a lotus, or the feathers of a parrot or
a peacock; which are greasy , transparent ,
and very heavy. Color of ore indicates the
metal or minerals in it.
Visual identification of few ores is described
35. • Vimalaka (a kind of precious stone - colour
of a conch-shell, camphor, alum, butter, a
pigeon, turtle-dove.
• opal (sasyaka)- color of that of the neck of a
peacock.
• agate (gomedaka) - color of that of
granulated sugar
• Silver ores smell like raw meat, are disjoined
gray or blackish white, and are marked with
lines or spots; and which, when roasted, do
not split, but emit much foam and smoke.
36. • The heavier the ores, the greater will be
the quantity of metal in them .
• The impurities of ores, whether
superficial or inseparably combined with
them can be got rid of.
37. The ores are chemically treated with
concentrated urine and alkalis and are mixed
or smeared over with the mixture of the
powder of Rajavriksha (Clitoria Ternatea), Vata
(Ficus Indica), and Pelu (Carnea Arborea),
together with cow's bile and the urine and
dung of a buffalo, an ass and an elephant and
then melted.
38. • Metals are rendered soft when they are
treated with the powder of mushroom, and
Yam together with the ashes of barley, black
beans, flowers of palasa (Butea Frondosa),
and pelu (Carnea Arborea), or with the milk of
both the cow and the sheep.
• Whatever metal is split into a hundred
thousand parts is rendered soft when it is
thrice soaked in the mixture made up of honey
, madhuka (Bassia Latifolia), sheep's milk,
sesame oil, clarified butter, jiggery, kinva
(ferment/ yeast) and mushroom.
39. • ores of copper - obtained from plains or slopes of
mountains; and which are heavy, greasy, soft, tawny,
green, dark, bluish-yellow (harita), pale-red, or red
• ores of lead.- color of pigeon, or cow’s bile, and
which are marked with white lines and smell like raw
meat
• ores of tin.-variegated in color as saline soil or which
have the color of a burnt lump of earth .
40. He shall carry on the manufacture of copper,
lead, tin, mercury brass , bronze or bell-metal.
He shall attend to the collection of conch-
shells, diamonds, precious stones, pearls,
corals, and salt (kshara) and also regulate the
commerce in the above commodities.
The superintendent of metals (lohadhyakshah)
41. When gold is rendered brittle owing to its
contamination with lead, it shall be heated
with dry cow dung. When it splits into pieces
owing to hardness, it shall be drenched (after
heating) into oil mixed with cow dung.
42. Mineral Ores found in India
• Coal-electricity generation, steel production,
cement manufacturing.
• Cobalt-It is widely used in cancer treatment,
as a tracer and for radiotherapy.
• Diamond-in saw blades, drill bits and grinding
wheels for the purpose of cutting, drilling or
grinding hard materials.
• Dolomite-Glass &Ceramics
• Fluorite- a sintering agent and flux in metal
processing.
43. • Iron ore-To manufacture steel, used in civil
engineering (reinforced concrete, girders etc)
and in manufacturing.
• Lime stone-Lime stone for lime & Cement
• Magnetite-Production of glass
• Lignite-fuel for steam-electric power
generation
• Magnetite-Iron and Steel
• Marble-Building stones
44. •Pyrite-Gold
•Quartz-Oscillators in radios, watches, and
pressure gauges, and in the study of optics.
•Sandstone-Building stones
•Bauxite-Aluminum
•Zinc-Paints, rubber, cosmetics,
pharmaceuticals, plastics, inks, soaps,
batteries, textiles and electrical equipment.
45. Mineralogy of ancient India
A mineral is defined as a naturally occurring
chemical compound, usually of crystalline form
and not produced by life processes.
A mineral has one specific chemical
composition, whereas a rock can be an
aggregate of different minerals. The study of
minerals is called mineralogy.
46. Classification of Minerals: Minerals can be
grouped under three heads a) Metallic, b)
Non-metallic and c) Energy minerals. Metallic
minerals are further divided into three groups
a) Ferrous, b) Non-ferrous and c) Precious.
Metallic Minerals such as Gold, Silver, Copper
etc. are precious and are mixed with other
metals and impurities.
47. Non Metallic minerals such as Nitrate,
potash, coal are known as fuels as these
produce heat. Petroleum and Coal are Plant
and animal remains (fossil fuel).
Ferrous Minerals which have iron content
are Cobalt, Nickel, Manganese.
Non-Ferrous Minerals which have no iron
content, are Copper, Tin and aluminum.
48. Lime Stone, Manganese, bauxite and Iron ore
Cobalt, Dolomite, Lignetite and Magnetite
Fluorite, Pyrite, Marble and Granite.
Minerals of India
49. Metal ores in the Arthashastra
Heavier the ore, more is the metal content.(KA
2/12/7). Ores of gold can be identified by
following symptoms; (KA 2/12/5)
1. Color yellow or red
2. Contains blue or green lines.
3. Emits smoke or foam when heated.
50. • Ores containing lead or Antimony smells like raw
flesh and has variegated white lines or spots. It
emits smoke or foam when heated. The color may
be crow black. (KA 2/12/6).
• Ores containing copper is heavy, unctuous and
soft. The color is tawny, green, reddish or red. . (KA
2/12/12).
• Iron ore contains round stones, whitish red or
Sinduvira.(KA 2/12/15).
• Vikranta ore has a color of crow’s eggs or birch-
leaf. .(KA 2/12/16).
• Gem ore is smooth, produces sound, hard anf of
light color. .(KA 2/12/17).
51. Addition of bulbous roots of plantain, and Yam
along with alkali ashes (made by burning barley ,
black masha. Sesame , plakshya ) and milk of goat
make the ore soft. (KA 2/12/9).
Honey, sugar syrup , goats milk, sesame oil mixed
with ghee, jiggery and yeast together with
plantain stem juce, when applied to leather three
times becomes soft. (KA 2/12/10).
Softening of materials
52. Soft metals can be made hard by smearing powder
of teeth or horns of cow on red hot material and
then quenching in cold water. (KA 2/12/11).
Hardening of materials
53. NON FERROUS METALS
Brass: Fusion of zinc with copper
Bronze: dancing girl´ statue from Mohenjo-Daro.
alloying copper with tin, lead or arsenic.
Mohenjo-daro, the presence of tin is 4.5 to 13 per cent
Copper: extensive evidence for the ancient mining of copper
ores from the Khetri region of Rajasthan in northwestern India
dating to about the 3rd-2nd millennium BC.
54. Early gold and silver ornaments from the
Indian subcontinent are found from Indus
Valley sites such as Mohenjo-Daro (ca 3000
BC). These are on display in the National
Museum, New Delhi.
Gold and Silver
55. Lead
The mineral-rich Aravalli region of Rajasthan
was one of the important early lead mining
regions in antiquity. The use of low melting
lead-tin eutectic as a solder became
common in Europe by the late medieval
period
56. Mercury
The Sanskrit name for ‘chemistry’ is Rasayan
shastra. Rasa means a liquid or mercury, which is
the only metal available in liquid state. If powdered
mica is mixed with mercury and rolled into a ball, it
is converted into solid form. Such material is sold in
market as Paarada-maNi or Paarada-shivaling.
57. • Mercury is a volatile metal which is easily produced
by heating cinnabar followed by downward distillation
of the mercury vapor.
• Mercury was also main constituent in alchemical
transmutation experiments as mentioned in Indian
alchemical texts which were precursors to the
development of chemistry.
58. Tin -The earliest references to metal tin has been
made in the Yajur Vedic Rudra Camaka , as 'Trapu '.
Name of its chief ore cassiterite, is possibly derived
from Sanskrit ‘ Kastira '. tin ore was found in Tosham,
Hariyana.
Zinc - The Rasaratnakara, describes this method of
production of zinc. Rasa Rasaratnasamuccaya, a
thirteenth century text gives details of the distillation
process by tiryak patina yantra (distillation by
descending). at Zawar, where the ancient zinc mines
(earliest so far is 430 BC) were found.
59. Bidriware
Bidriware, is famous all over the world. Bidri
is an alloy which contains zinc, copper, lead,
tin and a trace of iron. The art was developed
in 14th century AD. Several impressive
vessels, ewers, pitchers, vessels, huqqa bases
etc. were made of bidri ware with patterns
influenced by the fine geometric and floral
patterns.
60. literally means an alloy of five metals) most
widely used for making icons and idols. This five-
metal combination of Cu, Au, Ag, Pb, and Zn was
considered to be a highly auspicious composition
It is widely believed that wearing jewellery made
of Panchdhatu brings balance in life, self-
confidence, good health, fortune, prosperity, and
peace of mind.
Panchaloha
61. 6-IRON AND STEEL IN ANCIENT INDIA
The meaning of the Sanskrit word “ayas” has
been debated for a long time.
Types of Iron: According to Rasaratna
Samuchchaya (dated to the eighth to twelfth
century AD), Iron was classified into three basic
categories, which are applicable even today –
Wrought iron (Kanta Loha)
Carbon steel (Tikshna Loha)
Cast iron (Munda Loha)
62. Bhramaka kanta loha (Soft magnetic iron)
Chumbaka kanta loha (Mild magnetic iron)
Karshaka kanta loha (Attracts iron objects)
Dravaka kanta loha (Very strong magnetic
iron)
Ramaka kranta loha (Permanent magnet
and very powerful)
Kanta Loha
Munda Loha
Mrudu munda loha (Soft brittle iron)
Kunda munda loha (Mottled grey iron)
Kadara munda loha (White cast iron)
63. Teekshna Loha
Khara teekshana loha (Brittle but develops good
cutting edge)
Sara teekshana loha (Fibrous looking softer iron)
Hrunnala teekshana loha (Hard and tough
fibrous structure)
Taravata teekshana loha ( excellent cutting edge)
Vajra teekshana loha (hard and has excellent
tampering property)
Kala teekshana loha (Develops very hard edge
after tampering)
64. • The word derived from the Kannada ´ukku´ and the
Tamil ´ekku´, meaning crucible steel.
• This high carbon, wootz steel from ancient India has
a characteristic wavy pattern, with alternating light
and dark shades due to the large quantities of carbon
added to the iron.
• The famous Damascus Sword and Prophet
Mohammed´s ‘Teling’ sword were manufactured using
wootz steel.
Wootz steel
65. 7- CASE STUDIES OF METAL CASTINGS
7.1-Iron Pillar at Delhi
•The famous Iron Pillar belongs to 4th century with a
height of 7.20 m, with 93 cm buried below
•It is a wonder that iron has not rusted despite the
sixteen centuries that have passed since then.
•an excellent example of advanced metallurgy of
those times and is a marvel in itself.
•high amounts of phosphorus is the secret
66. 7.2 -The iron pillar at Kodachadri KS
Dwaja-Sthamba (flag-staff) of the Ambika temple or
the Kodachadri iron mast or pillar.
the iron pillar is about 10 m above the ground level,
with a rectangular cross-section of 8.5 cm x 5.8 cm .
The weight of this flag-staff can be estimated as about
500 kg.
67. 7.3 -Dhar iron pillar
Dhar iron pillar, in its original condition, was larger
than the Delhi iron pillar. Dhar pillar monument with
its total length of 13m’ is currently lying in three
broken pieces at Dhar iM.P.
68. 7.4-Huge Gun Metal Bells in India
Temple bells are comparatively big and of weight
less than 20Kg. Only two big bells of India worth
mentioning are Naroshankar Bell at Nasik (MS)
and other is a bell at MeNawali (MS), installed by
Nana Fadanavis in 16th century.
69. 7.5- The metal mirrors of Aranmula
The few traditional bronze smiths in Aranmula,
Kerala, create, the world-famous metal mirrors.
The polishing process can go on for two to three
days. The mirror is then mounted on bronze
frames with exquisite carvings.
70. 7.6-The Dhokra Technique of Bastar and Bankura
The lost wax process is the only technique used by
the tribal artist of Bastar (M.P) and Bankura (W.B.)
to create the Dhokra sculptures. All the artwork is
one of a kind and never reproduced on a large scale.
71. Sanskrit Names for Minerals
Sanskrit Roman English
अभ्रक Abhrak Mica
अलक Alak Orpiment
गगन gagan Mica
क्षारराज Kshyar raj Borax
लिण LavaN Salt
निसार Navsar Salt of ammonia
सुधा Sudha Lime
व्योर् Vyoma Mica
72. Sanskrit terms for various Metals
Sanskrit Roman English Sanskrit Roman English
अर Aar Brass metal अिी Ahi lead metal
अयस Ayah Iron अयस्कां त Ayaskant Load stone
/ magnet
भानु Bhanu Copper चांद्र Chandra silver
चांद्राका Chandrark Amalgam of
gold and
silver
गैररक Gairik/ Geru Red ochre
काांस्य / कृ ष्ण कषोपल Gun metal Testing
stone
Hartal Orpiment
कशसस /खग kasis / Khag Ferrous
Suphate
खपार Kharpar Zinc ore
ककट्ट Kitta Rust of iron क्षार Kshyar Alkali
73. Sanskrit Roman English Sanskrit Roman English
टांक Tank Borax क्षेत्रज Kshyetraj Variety of
gold
कु हटल / िांग Kutil / Vang Tin र्ांडूर Mandur Rust of iron
र्िारत्न Maharatna nine
precious
stones
िुल्ब Shulwa Copper
नाग Naag lead metal सौविर Soubir Galena /
Lead
sulphide
पारद Parad Mercury ताम्र Tamra Copper
शसांदूर Sindur Lead oxide तार tar silver
74. Sanskrit terms for Properties of metals
Sanskrit Roman English
रज Saumaka Of the moon = Cool
पांचघ्न Panca=ghna Non-malleable
करालघ्न Carala-ghna Anti-toxin
उष्णिीन Usna-Iiana Heat-proof
भािीन Bhara-rhana Weight-proof
िञीततिीन Sita rhana Cold-proof
आम्लिीन Arnla-rhana Acid-proof = Alkaline
अ्ग्नहिान Agni rhin Fire-proof
घ्निन Ghna, han means to kill, quench.
उष्णिन U sna- hana Heat + bearing
विषम्भर Visam-bhara Poison + bearing Toxic (weapon-
grade)
उष्णपा Usnarrr-pa Heat + protecting Heat conducting
रज Raja Shining = White
75. 9C-Alchemy in ancient India
Ancient text ‘Manasollas’ by King Someshwara
contains a full chapter (64) on alchemy
(Dhatuwad).The translation Sanskrit verses (377-394)
is given below.
377 - With the help of alchemy wealth can be earned. Copper
can be converted into gold and Tin can be converted into silver.
378 - Crush completely dried flowers of Palash (flame of forest),
mix with milk of she-goat and apply it for three days to
complete the process.
379 - Smear the Tin surface with the powder (one-sixth in
proportion and the heat it till it becomes beautiful like silver.
380 - Apply a juice of white lotus on Tin for thirty-two day.
381 - Heat the smeared Tin or lead and heat it till the black color
and smell is removed and it becomes silver like.
76. Sources of metal ores
SN Metal Synonyms Sanskrit Names Availability
01 Gold Hiranya, kanchana, manohara,
haataka, kanaka, mangalyaka
In India Karnataka , Bihar,
02 Silver Roupya, taara, chandraloha,
chandrahaasa, shubhraka
Bihar, M.P.
03 Copper Shulba, suryaloha, raviloha,
bhaskara, arka, ravipriya,
lohitayasa
Bihar, Rajasthan in India
04 Iron Ayas, shastraloha, saaraloha,
teekshnaka
South Bihar, W.Bengal, Orissa,
Rajasthan, AP, MP.
05 Lead Seesaka, seesa, bhujanga, phani,
kuranga, Aasheevisha, vabhra
Kashmir, Punjab, Rajasthan, TN,
Bihar.
06 Tin Rangaka, Shukraloha, Trapu,
Kuroopya, Trapusha, Trapusa
Bihar in India.
07 Zinc Jasad, Yasad, Reetihetu,
Kharparaja, Rangasankaasha
Kashmir, Punjab, Rajasthan, TN,
Bihar, MP, UP
08 Brass Reetika, Kapiloha, Kapila, Pingala,
Peetaka
----
09 Bronze Tamratrapuja, Ghosha, Ghoshaka,
Deeptaloha, Vahniloha, Kamsaka
----
10 Cast Iron Panchaloha, Pancharasa, Bharta, Vartula ----
77. Apparatus for Smelting of Iron by Indian
tribals
Leuva, K. K., 1963, " The Asur: A Study of Primitive Smelters “,
Bharatiya Adimjati Sevak Sangh, New Delhi,
78. Ancient Metallurgical Equipment
India had 20,000 furnaces operating across the
country indicating the geographical spread of this
knowledge.
hundreds of other beautiful sculptures and icons in
bronze and copper, belonging to periods earlier
than 2000 BCE,
Ref. Brhad-vimana-shastra. Rasa-ratna-
samuccayah.
A-Crucibles:
B-Tortoise Furnace:
C- Air Blowers (Bellows)
79. 9 F-Testing of metals
As per Bhrugu Shilpa Samhita there are eight
types of tests for metals.
• Cross-section (Anga)- In the test the metal piece is cut or
drilled. The inspection of cross-section is first test. -100
• Color (Roop): Every metal has its own color. The color can
be blue, black, red, yellow etc. -4
• Caste (Jaatee):The metal has its own positive or negative
properties by which metal can be identified. -4
• Trade mark (Netra): As humans can be identified by eyes,
similarly trade mark of manufacturer (in addition to the cross-
section) helps in identification. It has its own positive or
negative properties by which metal can be identified. -30
80. • Purity (Arishtha): Few metals are marked (by experts)
with its percentage of purity. -30
•Origin (Bhoomi): The mine from which the metal ore is
excavated is its origin. -2
•Sound (Dhwani)-The sound emitted when a metal is
struck by metal, helps in the identification. The engineer
should know the different sounds of metals. -8
•Section (Maan)- The metals are cast into different sections
(circular or square rods, angles, channels or beams etc) for
end users. -Infinite