61. Watershed Notes
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This document discusses key concepts about watersheds including that a watershed is an area of land where precipitation drains to a common outlet, it notes the Chesapeake Bay is our local watershed, and that human effects like pollution entered in one part of a watershed ultimately drain to a common location, potentially impacting the entire watershed.
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This document provides an overview of rivers and drainage basins. It defines a river, describes the water cycle and precipitation that feeds rivers. It explains the four types of river origins and stages of river development. Key river characteristics like width, depth, velocity and discharge are outlined. The hydrological cycle and its major components are described. Drainage basins are defined as the catchment area that feeds a river system, and key basin features like the source, mouth, tributaries and confluence are identified. Four characteristics of drainage basins are described: drainage patterns, drainage density, stream ordering, and vegetation and climatic hydrologic factors.
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• It has been estimated that tens of thousands of people are
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1. The hydrological cycle which describes the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth.
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3. Factors that influence storm hydrographs such as rock types, basin characteristics, precipitation levels, temperature, and vegetation cover.
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When rivers enter the mature, they become sluggish and
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erosion. It is a perennial problem in our country.
• It has been estimated that tens of thousands of people are
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100,000. Many households are forced to move away from their
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• As per different sources, 500 kilometres of riverbank face
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Meanders form through the process of helicoidal flow. At bends in the river, centripetal force throws water towards the outer bank, eroding and undercutting it. Slower flow on the inside of bends leads to deposition and the formation of point bars. Helicoidal flow causes eroded material to be deposited downstream in the next meander loop, furthering the meandering shape over time as the river seeks the most efficient path.
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Water Notes
Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen atoms bonded together as H2O molecules. The uneven distribution of charges within water molecules results in polarity, with the oxygen end slightly negative and hydrogen ends slightly positive. This allows opposing charges between molecules to form weak hydrogen bonds. Hydrogen bonding between water molecules absorbs heat energy and requires more energy to change water's state, especially during phase changes. It also results in water having a density of 1g/mL and being less dense as a solid than liquid. Hydrogen bonding and the resulting pockets account for these unique properties.
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The water cycle describes the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the Earth's surface, through different phases. Water evaporates from oceans and other bodies of water, rises into the atmosphere as vapor, condenses into clouds, and falls as precipitation onto land or surface water, completing the cycle. Water is transferred through processes like transpiration, runoff, and groundwater flow, and is stored in reservoirs like oceans, clouds, glaciers, lakes, and soil.
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Weathering is the natural breakdown of rocks through atmospheric and environmental forces. There are two types of weathering: mechanical and chemical. Mechanical weathering breaks rocks into smaller pieces through physical processes like ice wedging or abrasion, while chemical weathering breaks rocks down through chemical reactions like oxidation or hydrolysis. The rate of weathering is affected by factors like the rock's composition, exposed surface area, cracks and joints, climate, and topography. Erosion is the movement or transportation of weathered rock debris.
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Relative dating uses principles like the law of superposition, original horizontality, and crosscutting relationships to determine the sequence of geological events. Uniformitarianism, proposed by James Hutton in the 1800s, suggests geological processes in the past can be explained by current processes, groundbreaking because it indicated the Earth was millions rather than thousands of years old. Relative dating determines the age of objects in relation to each other using characteristics of sedimentary layers, unconformities, and which rocks cut through others.
35. Absolute Dating Notes
This document discusses absolute dating and radiometric dating. Absolute dating determines the numeric age of a geologic object by measuring the radioactive decay of isotopes with long half-lives. Radiometric dating compares the percentages of radioactive parent isotopes to stable daughter isotopes produced after half lives to calculate the age of a sample. Examples of practice problems show how to calculate the number of half lives needed for a sample amount to decay and determine half life from initial and final isotope amounts.
Volcano Notes
This document defines key terms related to volcanism such as magma, lava, and volcanoes. It also describes the three main types of plate boundaries that can cause volcanic activity: convergent boundaries between oceanic and continental plates or two oceanic plates which form subduction zones and volcanic mountain ranges; divergent boundaries like mid-ocean ridges where new crust is formed; and hot spots caused by stationary upwellings of magma not located at a boundary.
Earthquakes Notes
This document defines key terms related to earthquakes and seismic waves. It explains that earthquakes are caused by a sudden release of energy along fault lines in the earth. The focus is the location within the earth where the earthquake starts, while the epicenter is the point on the surface directly above the focus. There are three main types of seismic waves: P-waves which move in the direction of travel, S-waves which move sideways, and surface waves which cause the most damage. The timing and speed of P and S waves detected by seismic stations can be used to locate the epicenter of an earthquake.
18. Plate Boundary Notes
The document summarizes Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift from 1912. It proposed that the continents were once joined together in a supercontinent called Pangea, which later broke apart and drifted to their current positions. Wegener noted evidence supporting this, like matching fossil and rock formations across oceans, but did not know the mechanisms that caused the drift. Later studies discovered plate tectonics, including sea floor spreading at mid-ocean ridges, which provided the explanation for how and why the continents moved over time.
Plate Tectonics Notes
Plate tectonics is the theory that explains how the Earth's crust is divided into plates that move and change shape over geological time. The lithosphere consists of rigid tectonic plates that move atop the asthenosphere, a plastic layer of the upper mantle that flows slowly due to convection currents in the Earth's mantle. Heat from the interior rises at mid-ocean ridges, pushing crust outward and causing plates to move apart while cooler material sinks back into the mantle.
13. Continental Drift Notes
Alfred Wegner, a German meteorologist, proposed the theory of continental drift in 1912, which hypothesized that the continents were once joined together in a supercontinent called Pangea before breaking apart and drifting to their current locations. Wegner provided evidence from the matching shapes of continents, fossil records, rock formations, and climate but his theory was criticized because he could not explain the mechanism driving the continental movement.
10. Earth's Interior Heat Notes
Earth's interior heat comes from two main sources: residual heat left over from the planet's formation and ongoing radioactive decay within Earth's core and mantle. This heat keeps the outer core liquid through convection of iron and nickel, generating the Earth's magnetic field, and drives thermal convection in the mantle which powers plate tectonics at the surface. Heat is eventually released through volcanic and tectonic activity that forms and cools new crust.
9. Earth's Interior Notes
The Earth is composed of four main layers - the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. The crust and upper mantle make up the lithosphere, which is rigid, while the lower mantle and outer core are more plastic and move via convection currents. Earth's magnetic field originates from the flow of molten iron in the outer core.
Simple Organisms Notes
This document summarizes key kingdoms and organisms within each kingdom. It discusses the kingdoms of Monera, Protista, Fungi, and Plantae. Within Protista, it describes various unicellular algae like diatoms and dinoflagellates as well as multi-cellular algae. It also provides details about bacteria, cyanobacteria, green algae, brown algae, red algae, fungi, and salt tolerant plants.
4. Geologic Time Notes
Geologic time is divided into hierarchical units including eras, periods, and epochs based on changes in the Earth's surface, climate, and lifeforms. The Precambrian Era spans 88% of Earth's history from 4.6 billion to 542 million years ago during which the atmosphere and life originated. The Paleozoic Era followed and saw the rise of vertebrates and a mass extinction event. During the Mesozoic Era continents drifted apart and dinosaurs dominated until an asteroid caused a mass extinction. The current Cenozoic Era is characterized by decreasing temperatures, the age of mammals, and early humanoid fossils.
Evolution Notes
Evolution is any change in the genes of a population over time. The origin of life theories propose that organic molecules assembled from inorganic elements in the primordial atmosphere and oceans around 4 billion years ago. Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection proposed that populations evolve over generations as individuals with favorable variations are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on those variations. Evidence for evolution includes the fossil record showing sequences of simpler to more complex organisms over time, comparative anatomy revealing homologous and vestigial structures, and similarities in embryonic development across species.
Comparative Anatomy Notes
This document summarizes the key body systems in animals and how they have evolved from simple unicellular organisms to complex multicellular organisms. It describes the 11 main body systems - circulatory, digestive, endocrine, excretory, immune, integumentary, muscular, nervous, reproductive, respiratory, and skeletal systems - and how their functions have become increasingly specialized through evolution from basic intracellular processes to differentiated organs and organ systems. It also discusses comparative anatomy and the concepts of adaptation, natural selection, homologous and analogous structures in evolution.
4. Formation of Earth Notes
4.6 billion years ago, gas and dust in the solar system began clumping together through accretion to form asteroids and eventually Earth. As Earth's core formed due to the sinking of heavier elements, collisions and friction generated heat. Water was delivered to Earth via bombardments from asteroids and comets over time. A collision with a proto-planet called Theia added mass to Earth and ejected material that formed the Moon, giving Earth its tilt. As Earth cooled, its atmosphere, oceans, and solidified molten crust formed, with tectonic plates beginning to shift due to mantle convection heated by Earth's core.
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