This document provides an overview of various tools used for structured design in system analysis, including decision trees, decision tables, structured English, and data flow diagrams (DFDs). It discusses each tool's purpose and basic components. For decision trees, it provides examples and explains how they formally identify decision sequences. For decision tables, it outlines the basic layout and covers building, checking, and different entry formats. It also discusses using structured English to develop sequence, decision, and iteration statements. Finally, it explains DFDs, including context diagrams, different notation styles, and principles of expanding modules at different levels.
Software Engineering- ERD DFD Decision Tree and TableNishu Rastogi
Second half of Unit 2 of BCA 401 as per Invertis University, Syllabus
It includes introduction to ERD, DFD, Decision Tree and Table with examples and exercise.
Data Samples & Data AnalysesNYU SCPSDatabaOllieShoresna
Data Samples & Data Analyses
NYU | SCPS
Database Management & Modeling
Edward Colet
[email protected]
Asynchronous Session 3, week of June 7 2021
Class material and homework so far
You should be through text chapters 1-3 (introduction), 4-5 (database fundamentals), and the supplemental readings on RDMBS’s and BigData;
HW submissions were a short write-up about yourselves (hw1), a relational database design exercise, and a BigData discussion (hw2)
Questions from the material?
Please feel free to also use the discussion section on our NYU Discussion site to ask, answer, comment on material from this week (for this week, this will be part of hw3)
Content for this week
Chapter 6: The Analysis Sample
Chapter 7: Analyzing and Manipulating Customer Data
Online Khan Academy content to Introduce SQL
Week3 Overview
‹#›
‹#›
Key themes for this week (and the course)
Databases are important for storing data (obviously), but you have to analyze the data as well otherwise you just have a “data tomb”. The analysis of data to gain insights is what gives the data it’s power and makes it really valuable.
This week we’ll learn about some fundamental analytic concepts operations associated with analysis; We’ll review Correlation, a foundational basis for analytics and modeling; We’ll learn some of the fundamental operations to slice and dice data, and we’ll write basic SQL (Structured Query Language) code to create a table, populate it with records, and query the table to extract and summarize information.
Week3 Overview
‹#›
‹#›
The Analysis Sample
Chapter 6
Key Point of the Chapter:
Data analyses are usually (almost always) done on subsets of the data in the database. As such, the following are the key concepts and points to understand about working with subsets of data
Representative samples
Random samples
Frozen files
Test and validation data sets
Chapter 6: The Analysis Sample
‹#›
‹#›
Know some common marketing scenarios that would be suitable to use a sample and test…
To gauge new product offering/response
Price elasticity
Impact of a creative / change
Identify target market for new test
Gain insights on specific groups/segments
. . . Any decision about your product in the market can be tested and analyzed to minimize/gauge risk
Chapter 6: The Analysis Sample
‹#›
‹#›
What is a representative sample?
A sample accurately reflecting the population of interest from which the marketer wants to draw inferences.
Can not extend or apply results from one population to another
Can not purposely exclude names except for “permission opt-outs”, or other recently promoted per rules/regulations
What is a random sample?
When every member equally likely to be chosen
Nth selects is one approach (select every nth name)
Chapter 6: The Analysis Sample
‹#›
‹#›
What is a frozen file?
A file containing a snapshot view of the customer(s) at the time of the promotion, updated with response data to the promotion
Why is a fr ...
Good items are the basic building blocks of any good test or assessment. This presentation covers best practices in developing high-quality items for better psychometrics.
Software Engineering- ERD DFD Decision Tree and TableNishu Rastogi
Second half of Unit 2 of BCA 401 as per Invertis University, Syllabus
It includes introduction to ERD, DFD, Decision Tree and Table with examples and exercise.
Data Samples & Data AnalysesNYU SCPSDatabaOllieShoresna
Data Samples & Data Analyses
NYU | SCPS
Database Management & Modeling
Edward Colet
[email protected]
Asynchronous Session 3, week of June 7 2021
Class material and homework so far
You should be through text chapters 1-3 (introduction), 4-5 (database fundamentals), and the supplemental readings on RDMBS’s and BigData;
HW submissions were a short write-up about yourselves (hw1), a relational database design exercise, and a BigData discussion (hw2)
Questions from the material?
Please feel free to also use the discussion section on our NYU Discussion site to ask, answer, comment on material from this week (for this week, this will be part of hw3)
Content for this week
Chapter 6: The Analysis Sample
Chapter 7: Analyzing and Manipulating Customer Data
Online Khan Academy content to Introduce SQL
Week3 Overview
‹#›
‹#›
Key themes for this week (and the course)
Databases are important for storing data (obviously), but you have to analyze the data as well otherwise you just have a “data tomb”. The analysis of data to gain insights is what gives the data it’s power and makes it really valuable.
This week we’ll learn about some fundamental analytic concepts operations associated with analysis; We’ll review Correlation, a foundational basis for analytics and modeling; We’ll learn some of the fundamental operations to slice and dice data, and we’ll write basic SQL (Structured Query Language) code to create a table, populate it with records, and query the table to extract and summarize information.
Week3 Overview
‹#›
‹#›
The Analysis Sample
Chapter 6
Key Point of the Chapter:
Data analyses are usually (almost always) done on subsets of the data in the database. As such, the following are the key concepts and points to understand about working with subsets of data
Representative samples
Random samples
Frozen files
Test and validation data sets
Chapter 6: The Analysis Sample
‹#›
‹#›
Know some common marketing scenarios that would be suitable to use a sample and test…
To gauge new product offering/response
Price elasticity
Impact of a creative / change
Identify target market for new test
Gain insights on specific groups/segments
. . . Any decision about your product in the market can be tested and analyzed to minimize/gauge risk
Chapter 6: The Analysis Sample
‹#›
‹#›
What is a representative sample?
A sample accurately reflecting the population of interest from which the marketer wants to draw inferences.
Can not extend or apply results from one population to another
Can not purposely exclude names except for “permission opt-outs”, or other recently promoted per rules/regulations
What is a random sample?
When every member equally likely to be chosen
Nth selects is one approach (select every nth name)
Chapter 6: The Analysis Sample
‹#›
‹#›
What is a frozen file?
A file containing a snapshot view of the customer(s) at the time of the promotion, updated with response data to the promotion
Why is a fr ...
Good items are the basic building blocks of any good test or assessment. This presentation covers best practices in developing high-quality items for better psychometrics.
Decision Making StepsMGT350 Critical Thinking Strategies .docxtheodorelove43763
Decision Making Steps
MGT350 Critical Thinking: Strategies in Decision Making
University of Phoenix Material
Preparing Business Scenario Analyses
The following general guidelines may be used in preparing for an oral or written business scenario analysis and presentation.
There may be several feasible courses of action regarding the solution to any case. It is more important to concern yourself with the process of problem definition and isolation, analysis, and evaluation of alternatives, and the choice of one or more recommendations, rather than trying to find a single answer.
Very often, the right answer is the one that you can propose, explain, defend, and make work.
The Process of Analyzing a Case
1. Read and study the scenario thoroughly and efficiently.
Read the scenario once for familiarity, noting issues that come to the forefront. Read the scenario again. Determine all the facts, making notes about symptoms of problems, root problems, unresolved issues, and roles of key players. Watch for issues beneath the surface.
2. Isolate the problem(s).
Get a feel for the overall environment by putting yourself in the position of one of the key players. Seek out the pertinent issues and problems.
3. Analyze and evaluate alternatives.
a. Once the problems and issues are isolated, work at gaining a better understanding of causes. In what area of the unit do the problems exist? Why? What caused them? Examine and evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the unit’s processes (e.g., planning, communication), human behaviors, and/or exhibits (e.g., financial statements, sales reports.) Check the effectiveness of managerial competencies. Are the unit’s objectives and strategies compatible with its skills and resources?
b. Formulate a solid evaluation of the case.
Examine various alternatives. Weigh the pros and cons of each. Are they feasible? Decide on the most valid.
4. Make recommendations.
Draw up your set of recommendations on what must be done and prepare an agenda of corrective actions. What recommendations would you make to the manager of this unit? What specific functions and activities does the unit have to perform in order to solve its problems? Are the recommendations workable? Affordable? A good rule of thumb to follow is to avoid recommending anything you would not do yourself if you were in management’s shoes. Give reasons for your recommendations.
Presenting the Case
1. Identify key problems and issues: State them as clearly and precisely as possible. It is essential that your presentation reflect a sharply focused diagnosis of significant problems and issues confronting management.
2. Present the analysis and evaluation: Support your evaluation with facts. If you add exhibits or documentation, discuss them; don’t just tack them on to the report.
3. Recommendations and plan of action: Recommendations should address all of the problems and/or issues that were identified and analyzed. What are the consequences of you.
How to Grade Cognitive Writing Skills in Student Writings for high schools, colleges, universities and graduate schools based on Bloom's Taxonomy of Cognitive Skills
http://cjb.sagepub.com/
Behavior
Criminal Justice and
http://cjb.sagepub.com/content/10/2/209
The online version of this article can be found at:
DOI: 10.1177/0093854883010002005
1983 10: 209Criminal Justice and Behavior
ROY V. LEWIS
Squires Program
California Style : Evaluation of the San Quentin−−Scared Straight
Published by:
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On behalf of:
International Association for Correctional and Forensic Psychology
can be found at:Criminal Justice and BehaviorAdditional services and information for
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Running head ONline analytical process1ONline analytical proce.docxtoltonkendal
Running head: ONline analytical process 1
ONline analytical process 2Online Analytical Process and Date Cube
Vaishnavi Gunnam
SEC 6050
Wilmington University
Introduction
Online Analytical Process (OLAP) is among of the powerful and potential technologies used for knowledge discovery in vast database environment. The key part of OLAP model is the data cube. It is a multidimensional arrangement of collective values which provide sophisticated model for the decision support. OLAP is the foundation for numerous business application with sales and market analysis, planning, accounting and performance evaluation. Unlike statistical databases which usually store census data and economic data, OLAP is primarily used for analyzing business data collected from daily transactions such as sales data and health care data.
The main purpose of an OLAP system is to enable analysts to construct a mental image about the underlying data by exploring it from different perspectives, at different level of generalizations, and in an interactive manner. OLAP interacts with other components, such as data warehouse and data mining, to assist analysts in making business decisions.
A data cube is a type of multidimensional structure which allows users to analyze the data that is collected from various sources for different purposes, by taking three different factors into account at same instance. Data cube was proposed as a SQL operator to support common OLAP tasks like histograms and subtotals (Wang, Jajodia, & Wijesekera, 2010) .
Uses of OLAP Data Cube
OLAP data cubes are the most advanced technology that is used to analyze the data in huge data environments. There are many applications and uses of the OLAP data cubes, the following are some of the uses of implementing OLAP data bases in various fields:
· On-Line Analytical Processing (OLAP) techniques are more progressively being used in the Decision support system in order to provide the analysis of the data. The queries that were posted on the decision support systems are very complex and need different views of data. So OLAP data cubes are used to provide various dimensional views and helps in analyzing the data for required results (Blanco et al., 2015).
· On-line Analytical Processing systems facilitate analysts and managers of the organizations to provide insight on the performance of the organization by using various different views of data for reflecting the multidimensional (Blanco et al., 2015).
· The model which is dimensional in a logical way is represented by a cube. The tools will help in facilitating the updating and maintenance of the cube which attributes the multidimensional model, which further assists in easier setting up and helps in maintaining the cube effectively from taking the assistance through the intuitions to the extent of use possible (Blanco et al., 2015).
Operations of Data Cubes
To support OLAP, the datacube should provide the following capabilities.
Roll-up
Roll-u ...
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Normal Labour/ Stages of Labour/ Mechanism of LabourWasim Ak
Normal labor is also termed spontaneous labor, defined as the natural physiological process through which the fetus, placenta, and membranes are expelled from the uterus through the birth canal at term (37 to 42 weeks
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
1. Tools for Structured Design
Organized By: Vinay Arora
Assistant Professor
CSED, Thapar University
www.slideshare.net/aroravinay
2. Disclaimer
This is NOT A COPYRIGHT MATERIAL
Content has been taken mainly from the following books:
System Analysis and Design Methods By Jeffrey L Whitten & Lonnie D Bentley ,
Analysis & Design of Information Systems By James A. Senn,
System Analysis & Design By Elias M. Awad,
Modern System Analysis & Design By Jeffrey A. Hoffer, Joey F.George & Joseph
S. Valacich
V.A.
CSED
3. Tools for Structured Analysis
For the Business System under Investigation DECISION &
PROCEDURES are Important to System Analyst.
Various TOOLS are present for Studying Operational Procedures and
Decision Making Steps.
TOOL – A Device, Object or Operation used to accomplish a Specific
Task.
Three TOOLS for Documenting Procedures:
Decision Tree, Decision Table and Structured English
V.A.
CSED
4. Structured English
STRUCTURED ENGLISH is the use of the English Language with the
SYNTAX of Structured Programming.
STRUCTURED ENGLISH aims at getting the benefits of both the
Programming Logic and Natural Language.
Program Logic helps to attain precision while natural language helps in
getting the convenience of spoken Languages.
Method to Overcome Problem of AMBIGUOUS Language.
V.A.
CSED
5. Guidelines when writing Structured
English
Statements should be Clear and Unambiguous
Use One Line per Logical Element
All LOGIC should be expressed in Operational, Conditional and
Repetition Blocks
Logical Blocks should be indented to show Relationship
Keywords should be Capitalized
V.A.
CSED
7. Common Keywords
START, BEGIN, END, STOP, DO, WHILE, DO WHILE, FOR,
UNTIL, DO UNTIL, REPEAT, END WHILE, END UNTIL, END
REPEAT, IF, IF THEN, ELSE, IF ELSE, END IF, THEN, ELSE
THEN, ELSE IF, CASE, EQUAL, TRUE, FALSE, AND, OR, XOR
V.A.
CSED
8. Developing Structured Statements
Structured English uses THREE Basic Types of Statements to describe a
PROCESS:
SEQUENCE STRUCTURES
DECISION STRUCTURE
ITERATION STRUCTURES
V.A.
CSED
9. Sequence Structures
A Single Step or Action Included in a Process.
None of the Steps contains a Decision or any Conditions that determine
whether the steps are taken.
Operation Statements written as ENGLISH PHRASES executed from
the top down.
Example:
1). Pick Out a Desirable Book
2). Take the Book to the Checkout Counter
3). Pay for the Book
4). Obtain a Receipt
5). Leave the Store
V.A.
CSED
10. Decision Structure
Another way of Showing Decision Analysis.
Decision Structures occur When TWO or MORE Actions can be taken,
depending on the value for a Specific Condition.
After Decision Making Stated Actions or Sets of Actions for that
Condition will be taken.
Once Condition is made, ACTIONS are Unconditional.
Keywords Like IF/THEN/OTHERWISE are used.
V.A.
CSED
11. Example
IF a desirable book is found, THEN
Take the book to the checkout counter.
Pay for the book.
Be sure to obtain a receipt.
Leave the store.
OTHERWISE
Do not take the books to the checkout counter.
Leave the Store.
END IF
V.A.
CSED
12. Iteration Structure
Iteration Instructions permit Analyst to Describe the cases where:
Certain Activities are repeated WHILE a certain Condition Exists
OR
UNTIL a Condition Occurs
V.A.
CSED
13. Example
DO WHILE Still examining more books.
Read the title of the Book.
IF the title sounds interesting
THEN pick up the book and thumb through it.
Look at the Price.
IF you decide you want the book
Put it in the DESIRABLE BOOK stack.
ELSE Put it back on the shelf.
END IF
ELSE Continue
END DO
V.A.
CSED
14. IF Desirable books are found THEN
Take the books to the checkout counter.
Pay for the books.
Be sure to obtain a receipt.
Leave the store.
ELSE
Do not take books to the checkout counter
Leave the store
END IF
V.A.
CSED
16. Decision Tree
Conditions – Possible States of an ENTITY.
Action – What to do when certain condition/s occur…
Actions are the Alternatives.
Tools used in Understanding & Matching combinations are -
- Decision Trees
- Decision Tables
- Structured English
V.A.
CSED
17. Decision Tree
Decision Tree – Diagram that presents CONDITIONS and ACTIONS
sequentially.
Shows which CONDITIONS to consider First which Second and so on.
Method of showing the relationship of condition & its permissible
actions.
Diagram resembles branch of a TREE.
V.A.
CSED
21. Decision Tree (cont.)
Formal Identification of Actual Decision.
Force Analyst to Consider the Sequence of Decisions.
Drawback of Decision Tree – A Large number of branches with many
paths through them will cloud rather than aid analysis.
V.A.
CSED
30. Decision Table
Decision Table – Matrix of Rows & Columns, rather than a TREE.
Decision Rules are present in Decision Table.
Decision Tables are a Precise yet Compact WAY TO MODEL complicated
logic.
Decision Tables, like If-Then-Else and Switch-Case Statements,
ASSOCIATE CONDITIONS WITH ACTIONS to perform.
Decision Rule – Procedure to follow when certain Conditions Exits.
V.A.
CSED
33. Decision Tree - Example
Longer than 10 Days Within 10 Days
Over $10000 Below $5000
$5000 to $10000
Pay Full Invoice Amount
Take 2% Discount from Pay Full Invoice Amount
Take 3% Discount from Invoice Total
Invoice Total
V.A.
CSED
35. Decision Table – Example Payment
Discount
There are various Formats of Decision Tables. Format doesn’t Change
the Usefulness of Decision Table.
V.A.
CSED
36. Building Decision Table - Steps
1- Determine most relevant factors to consider in making a DECISION.
2- Determine the most feasible steps or activities under varying conditions.
3- Study the Combinations of Conditions that are Possible.
4- Fill in the Table with DECISION Rules.
5- Mark Action entries with ‘X’ to signal action(s).
6- Examine Table for Redundant Rules.
V.A.
CSED
46. Data Dictionary
DATA DICTIONARY – Can be defined as a CATALOG or a
REPOSITORY of the Elements in a SYSTEM.
To Manage details in a Large System.
To Document the features of a System.
To Communicate a Common Meaning for all System Elements.
Record in DD – Data Element, Data Structure.
V.A.
CSED
64. DFD – A Tool for data flow analysis
DFD - A Structured, Diagrammatic technique for showing the
functions performed by a System & the data flowing Into, out of &
within it.
Following Data-Oriented Questions about a Target System:
What processing is done?
What data is Needed?
The Context Diagram (Level 0 DFD) is the Highest Level in a Data
Flow Diagram and contains only One Process, representing the ENTIRE
SYSTEM.
V.A.
CSED
75. DFD Principles
A System can be decomposed into Subsystems and Subsystems can be
decomposed into Lower Level Subsystems and so on.
Each Subsystem represents a Process or Activity in which data is
processed.
At the Lowest Level, Processes can no longer be decomposed.
Just as a System must have Input and Output, so a Process must have
Input and Output.
Data Enters the System from the Environment, Data Flows between
Processes within the System and Data is produced as Output from the
System.
V.A.
CSED
95. Physical & Logical DFD
WHAT the System does - Current Physical DFD
HOW it does it - Current Logical DFD
WHAT it should do - Required Logical DFD
HOW it should do it - Required Physical DFD
V.A.
CSED
102. Reference List
1. System Analysis and Design Methods By Jeffrey L Whitten & Lonnie D Bentley
2. Analysis & Design of Information Systems By James A. Senn
3. System Analysis & Design By Elias M. Awad
4. Modern System Analysis & Design By Jeffrey A. Hoffer, Joey F.George & Joseph S. Valacich
5. http://yourdon.com/strucanalysis/wiki/index.php?title=Chapter_9
6. http://www.ehow.com/about_5095247_definition-data-flow-diagrams.html
etc…….
V.A.
CSED