The anterior pituitary gland regulates several endocrine organs through the release of hormones. It consists of two lobes - the anterior and posterior pituitary. The anterior pituitary releases growth hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, follicle stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, and prolactin. These hormones work through feedback loops called axes to regulate target endocrine glands. The axes include the growth hormone axis, hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis, hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, and prolactin axis. The posterior pituitary releases antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin.
PHYSIOLOGY
OF
THYROID
HORMONES
Understand the significance of the conversion of tetraiodothyronine (T4) to triiodothyronine (T3) and reverse T3 (rT3) in extrathyroidal tissues.
Understand how thyroid hormones produce their cellular effects.
Describe the physiological effects of thyroid hormones in the body.
Outline the mechanisms for regulation of thyroid hormone.
Correlate knowledge to hypo- and hypersecretion of thyroid hormones
PHYSIOLOGY
OF
THYROID
HORMONES
Understand the significance of the conversion of tetraiodothyronine (T4) to triiodothyronine (T3) and reverse T3 (rT3) in extrathyroidal tissues.
Understand how thyroid hormones produce their cellular effects.
Describe the physiological effects of thyroid hormones in the body.
Outline the mechanisms for regulation of thyroid hormone.
Correlate knowledge to hypo- and hypersecretion of thyroid hormones
Pituitary gland one of the most important glands for health and normal biological functions inside the body.
This is a very influential gland releases hormones that affect your growth as well as influencing the activities of other glands. For this reason the pituitary gland is often referred to as the master gland.Pituitary secretion is controlled by either hormonal or nervous signals from hypothalamus.
Division in Two Lobes
1-Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)
- cells secrete peptide/protein hormones
2-Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)
- is an extension of the hypothalamus
- is composed largely of the axons of the hypothalamic neurons
Thyroid hormone (The Guyton and Hall physiology)Maryam Fida
THYROID HORMONE
Location:
The thyroid gland located below the larynx on each side of and anterior to the trachea.
Largest Endocrine Hormone
Secretion:
secretes:
1. thyroxine (T4)
2. triiodothyronine (T3)
3. Also secretes calcitonin (an important hormone for calcium metabolism)
Cell: Thyrotopes
secretion is controlled by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary gland.
93% T4 & 7% T3
T4→T3 in tissues
Qualitatively same
Differ in Rapidity & Intensity of action.
T3 is 4 times more potent than T4, but decrease conc. In blood & decrease half life.
T3 and T4 combine mainly with thyroxine-binding globulin.
More than 90% of Thyroid hormone that binds with cellular receptors is T3.
T4
No effect for 2-3 days after injection
Long Latent Period.
Activity peaks in 10-12 days & ↓↓ with a half life of 15 days.
In some cases it takes 6 weeks-2 months.
T3
4 times rapid
Latent Period 6-12 hours
Peak in 2-3 days
Composed of large numbers of closed follicles filled with colloid and lined with cuboidal epithelial cells that secrete into the interior of the follicles
The major component of colloid is the large glycoprotein Thyroglobulin contains the thyroid hormones within its molecule.
50mg/year, 1mg/week
Ingested iodine in the form of iodides
Iodides ingested orally are absorbed from GIT
⅕ removed from the blood by thyroid cells for synthesis of hormones; rest excreted through kidneys.
Basal membrane of thyroid cells has an active pump to push iodides to interior (Iodine Pump).
Normally 30% more conc. Inside
Max. active 250% more conc. Inside
The rate of Iodine trapping is influenced by conc. of TSH
TSH stimulates and hypophysectomy greatly diminishes the activity of the iodide pump in thyroid cells.
The endocrine system is a messenger system comprising feedback loops of the hormones released by internal glands of an organism directly into the circulatory system, regulating distant target organs. In vertebrates, the hypothalamus is the neural control center for all endocrine systems.
Pituitary gland one of the most important glands for health and normal biological functions inside the body.
This is a very influential gland releases hormones that affect your growth as well as influencing the activities of other glands. For this reason the pituitary gland is often referred to as the master gland.Pituitary secretion is controlled by either hormonal or nervous signals from hypothalamus.
Division in Two Lobes
1-Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)
- cells secrete peptide/protein hormones
2-Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)
- is an extension of the hypothalamus
- is composed largely of the axons of the hypothalamic neurons
Thyroid hormone (The Guyton and Hall physiology)Maryam Fida
THYROID HORMONE
Location:
The thyroid gland located below the larynx on each side of and anterior to the trachea.
Largest Endocrine Hormone
Secretion:
secretes:
1. thyroxine (T4)
2. triiodothyronine (T3)
3. Also secretes calcitonin (an important hormone for calcium metabolism)
Cell: Thyrotopes
secretion is controlled by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary gland.
93% T4 & 7% T3
T4→T3 in tissues
Qualitatively same
Differ in Rapidity & Intensity of action.
T3 is 4 times more potent than T4, but decrease conc. In blood & decrease half life.
T3 and T4 combine mainly with thyroxine-binding globulin.
More than 90% of Thyroid hormone that binds with cellular receptors is T3.
T4
No effect for 2-3 days after injection
Long Latent Period.
Activity peaks in 10-12 days & ↓↓ with a half life of 15 days.
In some cases it takes 6 weeks-2 months.
T3
4 times rapid
Latent Period 6-12 hours
Peak in 2-3 days
Composed of large numbers of closed follicles filled with colloid and lined with cuboidal epithelial cells that secrete into the interior of the follicles
The major component of colloid is the large glycoprotein Thyroglobulin contains the thyroid hormones within its molecule.
50mg/year, 1mg/week
Ingested iodine in the form of iodides
Iodides ingested orally are absorbed from GIT
⅕ removed from the blood by thyroid cells for synthesis of hormones; rest excreted through kidneys.
Basal membrane of thyroid cells has an active pump to push iodides to interior (Iodine Pump).
Normally 30% more conc. Inside
Max. active 250% more conc. Inside
The rate of Iodine trapping is influenced by conc. of TSH
TSH stimulates and hypophysectomy greatly diminishes the activity of the iodide pump in thyroid cells.
The endocrine system is a messenger system comprising feedback loops of the hormones released by internal glands of an organism directly into the circulatory system, regulating distant target organs. In vertebrates, the hypothalamus is the neural control center for all endocrine systems.
THESE SLIDES ARE PREPAREED TO UNDERSTAND about ENDOCRINE GLANDS IN EASY WAY Important links- NOTES- https://mynursingstudents.blogspot.com/ youtube channel https://www.youtube.com/c/MYSTUDENTSU... CHANEL PLAYLIST- ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY-https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL93S13oM2gAPM3VTGVUXIeswKJ3XGaD2p COMMUNITY HEALTH NURSING- https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL93S13oM2gAPyslPNdIJoVjiXEDTVEDzs CHILD HEALTH NURSING- https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL93S13oM2gANcslmv0DXg6BWmWN359Gvg FIRST AID- https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL93S13oM2gAMvGqeqH2ZTklzFAZhOrvgP HCM- https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL93S13oM2gAM7mZ1vZhQBHWbdLnLb-cH9 FUNDAMENTALS OF NURSING- https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL93S13oM2gAPFxu78NDLpGPaxEmK1fTao COMMUNICABLE DISEASES- https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL93S13oM2gAOWo4IwNjLU_LCuhRN0ZLeb ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH- https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL93S13oM2gAPkI6LvfS8Zu1nm6mZi9FK6 MSN- https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL93S13oM2gAOdyoHnDLAoR_o8M6ccqYBm HINDI ONLY- https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL93S13oM2gAN4L-FJ3s_IEXgZCijGUA1A ENGLISH ONLY- https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL93S13oM2gAMYv2a1hFcq4W1nBjTnRkHP facebook profile- https://www.facebook.com/suresh.kr.lrhs/ FACEBOOK PAGE- https://www.facebook.com/My-Student-S... facebook group NURSING NOTES- https://www.facebook.com/groups/24139... FOR MAKING EASY NOTES YOU CAN ALSO VISIT MY BLOG – BLOGGER- https://mynursingstudents.blogspot.com/ Instagram- https://www.instagram.com/mystudentsu... Twitter- https://twitter.com/student_system?s=08 #PEM, #ENDOCRINE,#GLANDS,#nurses,#ASSESSMENT, #APPEARENCE,#PULSE,#GRIMACE,#REFLEX,#RESPIRATION,#RESUSCITATION,#NEWBORN,#BABY,#VIRGINIA, #CHILD, #OXYGEN,#CYANOSIS,#OPTICNERVE, #SARACHNA,#MYSTUDENTSUPPORTSYSTEM, #rashes,#nursingclasses, #communityhealthnursing,#ANM, #GNM, #BSCNURING,#NURSINGSTUDENTS, #WHO,#NURSINGINSTITUTION,#COLLEGEOFNURSING,#nursingofficer,#COMMUNITYHEALTHOFFICER
This note will be helpful for Pharmacy Students searching for analogues and inhibitors of various hormones in human body.
- anterior Pituitary hormones
- hormone functions
-inhibitors
-similar working drugs
-one day assignment size
TSH: thyroid-stimulating hormone
ACTH: adrenocorticotropic hormone
FSH: follicle-stimulating hormone
LH: luteinizing hormone
GH: growth hormone
PRL: prolactin
MSH: melanocyte-stimulating hormone
NOTE: THEY ALL (6) ARE RELEASED FROM ANTERIOR PITUITARY
ADH: antidiuretic hormone
Oxytocin
NOTE: THESE TWO ABOVE HORMONES ARE RELEASED FROM POSTERIOR PITUITARY
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
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New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
3. ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
OVERVIEW
‣ The pituitary gland acts as a higher level of control in
endocrine physiology, regulating the function of several
other endocrine organs
‣ The pituitary gland consists of two lobes: the anterior and
posterior pituitary
‣ Differing in embryological origin and histology, these
effectively function as two separate endocrine glands
5. ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
OVERVIEW OF AXES
‣ The hypothalamus releases hormones, which stimulate or inhibit the secretion of anterior
pituitary hormones
‣ The anterior pituitary hormones have a subsequent trophic (“feeding”) effect on a further
endocrine organ in the body, stimulating it to release a final hormone in the pathway, known as
the peripheral hormone
‣ This peripheral hormone travels in the blood stream to exert metabolic actions at a variety of
tissues in the body
‣ The rise in levels of this peripheral hormone will usually have a positive and/or negative
feedback effect on the pituitary and hypothalamus
‣ i.e. will stimulate or inhibit the further release of the respective hypothalamic and/or
pituitary hormones
‣ This circuit between the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary and an endocrine gland is known as
an axis
7. ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
OVERVIEW OF AXES
‣ Note that in some cases, the anterior pituitary hormone itself may be the peripheral hormone in the
pathway or may act on tissues in addition to stimulating a target endocrine gland to release the
peripheral hormone
‣ There are 5 anterior pituitary axes summarized below:
‣ Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis
Involving Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH)
‣ Growth Hormone Axis
Involving Growth Hormone (GH)
‣ Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Thyroid Axis
Involving Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
‣ Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis
Involving Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
‣ Prolactin Axis
Involving Prolactin (PRL)
8. ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
GROWTH HORMONE AXIS
‣ The hypothalamus secretes Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH)
‣ GHRH stimulates somatotroph cells of the anterior pituitary to release Growth Hormone (GH),
also known as somatotropin
‣ To exert several metabolic effects in many tissues of the body GH has
‣ direct actions on tissues by binding to cells
‣ indirect effects whereby it stimulates the liver to produce Insulin-like Growth
Factor-1 (IGF-1) to mediate actions
‣ The direct actions of GH include:
‣ Increased lipolysis
‣ Reduced glucose oxidation
‣ Reduced protein oxidation
9. ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
‣ The effects of GH via IGF-1 can be thought of as “anabolic” (compound building) like
insulin and include:
‣ Increases protein synthesis
‣ Increases carbohydrate oxidation
‣ The overall effects, arising from an interplay between the two substances, are
important for the following:
‣ Skeletal growth
‣ Muscle strength
‣ Bone density
‣ Cardiac function
10. ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
REGULATION
‣ Several factors including stress, exercise, nutrition and
sleep modulate the production of growth hormone
‣ GHRH promotes GH release
‣ Somatostatin, produced by the hypothalamus, the intestines
and delta cells of the endocrine pancreas, inhibits GH
‣ There is also inhibition of GH production by IGF-1, which
prevents somatotroph releasing GH and promotes
somatostatin release from the hypothalamus
15. ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
HYPOTHALAMIC-PITUITARY-THYROID AXIS
‣ The hypothalamus produces Thyrotrophin Releasing Hormone (TRH)
‣ TRH stimulates thryotropic cells in the anterior pituitary to produce Thyroid Stimulating
Hormone (TSH)
‣ TSH is released in low amplitude pulses, following a circadian rhythm
‣ In this case, there are higher levels at night and lower levels in the morning
‣ TSH binds to receptors on follicular cells of the thyroid gland, stimulating the production of
thyroid hormones: Tri-iodothyronine (T3) and Tetra-iodothyronine (T4), also known as Thyroxine
‣ Control of this system is via negative feedback
‣ High levels of T3 and T4 inhibit
‣ TRH production by the hypothalamus
‣ TSH production by the anterior pituitary gland
17. ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
HYPOTHALAMIC-PITUITARY-THYROID AXIS
‣ The actions of T3 and T4 are widespread
‣ Some important functions include:
‣ Metabolic – increasing basal metabolic rate and promoting
catabolism e.g. lipolysis, glycogenolysis, glycolysis and proteolysis
‣ Nervous system – important for speed of reflexes and mental
activity
‣ Cardiovascular system – increases synthesis of cardiac muscle
protein, increases cardiac output
‣ Bone – increases bone mineralization
18. ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
HYPOTHALAMIC-PITUITARY-GONADAL AXIS
‣ The Hypothalamic pituitary gonadal axis is fundamental to the control of the
reproductive system
‣ Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH) is released in a pulsatile fashion
from the hypothalamus
‣ This stimulates gonadotroph cells of the anterior pituitary to produce two
hormones equally:
‣ Luteinising Hormone (LH)
‣ Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
‣ These then act on the gonads (testes/ovaries), and have different functions in
males and females
19. ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
IN MALES
‣ LH stimulates the testes to produce testosterone, the main male
sex steroid hormone
‣ Testosterone has systemic effects to produce male secondary
sex characteristics:
‣ Growth of pubic hair, axillary hair and facial hair
‣ Growth of external genitalia
‣ Deepening of voice
‣ Muscle growth
20. ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
IN MALES
‣ In addition, testosterone helps to maintain libido (sexual drive) and promotes
anabolic reactions
‣ Within the testes, testosterone acts to aid the formation of
sperm (spermatogenesis)
‣ Testosterone has a negative feedback effect on the hypothalamus to inhibit
GnRH production
‣ FSH drives sperm production at the testes (spermatogenesis), as well as
stimulating the testes to produce the hormone inhibin
‣ Inhibin has a selective negative feedback effect
‣ inhibits FSH production, but does not inhibit LH production
21. ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
IN FEMALES
‣ LH stimulates the ovaries to produce androgens. FSH stimulates:
‣ Follicle growth
‣ Conversion of androgens to oestrogen
‣ Release of the hormone Inhibin from the ovaries
‣ Estrogen at moderate concentrations has a negative feedback
effect on LH and FSH secretion
‣ Estrogen alone (in the absence of progesterone) at high
concentrations promotes LH and FSH secretion
22. ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
IN FEMALES
‣ Inhibin, as in males, has a selective negative feedback
effect on FSH only and not LH
‣ Progesterone is a sex steroid released by the corpus
luteum, which is the remain of the follicle after ovulation
‣ Progesterone increases the inhibitory effect of moderate
oestrogen concentration
‣ Progesterone prevents the positive feedback of a high
oestrogen concentration
23. ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
PROLACTIN AXIS
‣ Prolactin (PRL) is produced by the lactotroph cells of the anterior pituitary
gland
‣ Its pulsatile secretion follows a circadian rhythm with a nocturnal peak
during sleep and a second (but lesser) peak in the evening
‣ The main action of prolactin is to initiate and maintain lactation (milk
production/secretion) of breast tissue
‣ Prolactin is under inhibition by dopamine (DA), a neurotransmitter
released from the hypothalamus
‣ Note that the prolactin axis is the only axis where a hypothalamic hormone
inhibits the release of the pituitary hormone instead of stimulating it
24. ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
PROLACTIN AXIS
‣ Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone (TRH), also from the
hypothalamus, stimulates the release of prolactin but this is only
a minor positive feedback effect
‣ Estrogens also have a positive feedback effect on Prolactin,
stimulating its release
‣ Prolactin has a negative feedback effect on GnRH at the
hypothalamus, inhibiting its release
‣ Prolactin blocks the action of LH on the gonads (ovaries and
testes)
26. ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
REVIEW QUESTIONS
‣ Which of the following is NOT a hormone released from
the Anterior Pituitary gland?
‣ Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)
‣ Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
‣ Prolactin
‣ Growth hormone
27. ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
REVIEW QUESTIONS
‣ Which of the following is NOT a hormone released from
the Anterior Pituitary gland?
‣ Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)
‣ Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
‣ Prolactin
‣ Growth hormone
28. ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
REVIEW QUESTIONS
‣ Anti-diuretic is one of the two hormones released from the
posterior pituitary, which is histologically and
embryologically completely different to its anterior twin.
The other hormone is oxytocin.
29. ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
REVIEW QUESTIONS
‣ Which of the following would result in a DECREASE in Growth
Hormone release from the anterior pituitary?
‣ Increased Growth Hormone Releasing Factor release from
hypothalamus
‣ Decreased Somatostatin release from hypothalamus and GI
system
‣ Increased Somatostatin release from hypothalamus and GI
system
‣ Complete surgical removal of tumour producing ectopic GH
30. ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
REVIEW QUESTIONS
‣ Which of the following would result in a DECREASE in Growth
Hormone release from the anterior pituitary?
‣ Increased Growth Hormone Releasing Factor release from
hypothalamus
‣ Decreased Somatostatin release from hypothalamus and GI
system
‣ Increased Somatostatin release from hypothalamus and GI
system
‣ Complete surgical removal of tumour producing ectopic GH
32. ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
REVIEW QUESTIONS
‣ If T3 and T4 blood concentrations are high, and TRH
concentrations are low, where is the problem likely to be?
‣ Hypothalamus
‣ Anterior Pituitary
‣ Thyroid Gland
‣ More information is needed
33. ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
REVIEW QUESTIONS
‣ If T3 and T4 blood concentrations are high, and TRH
concentrations are low, where is the problem likely to be?
‣ Hypothalamus
‣ Anterior Pituitary
‣ Thyroid Gland
‣ More information is needed
34. ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
REVIEW QUESTIONS
‣ The problem may be in the thyroid, or in the ant. pituitary.
We require the TSH concentration. If low, the problem is
the thyroid. If high, it may be the pituitary.
35. ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
REVIEW QUESTIONS
‣ Women who have undergone a hysterectomy cannot
produce progesterone, because it is synthesised by the…?
‣ Uterus
‣ Ova
‣ Corpus luteum
‣ Oviduct
36. ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
REVIEW QUESTIONS
‣ Women who have undergone a hysterectomy cannot
produce progesterone, because it is synthesised by the…?
‣ Uterus
‣ Ova
‣ Corpus luteum
‣ Oviduct
37. ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
REVIEW QUESTIONS
‣ Progesterone is released by the corpus luteum - the
remains of the follicle after the ovum has ovulated.
38. ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
REVIEW QUESTIONS
‣ What is unique about the prolactin axis compared to the
other pituitary axes?
‣ It is only ever found in females
‣ It is the only axis that is circadian in rhythm
‣ Its releasing hormone inhibits the pituitary hormone
‣ There are no known cancers affecting the axis
39. ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
REVIEW QUESTIONS
‣ What is unique about the prolactin axis compared to the
other pituitary axes?
‣ It is only ever found in females
‣ It is the only axis that is circadian in rhythm
‣ Its releasing hormone inhibits the pituitary hormone
‣ There are no known cancers affecting the axis
41. References
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terms of use policy.
Specific portions referenced in this summary are as
follows:
‣ https://teachmephysiology.com/endocrine-system/pituitary-gland/
anterior-pituitary-gland/
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